UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


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FUNDAMENTALS 

OF 

MILITARY  SERVICE 

BY 

CAPTAIN  LINCOLN  C.  ANDREWS,  U.  S.  CAVALRY 

PREPARED   UNDER   THE   SUPERVISION    OF 

MAJOR  GENERAL  LEONARD   WOOD,  U.  S.  ARMY 

SPECIAL    CHAPTERS 

ENGINEER  CORPS 
Major  S.  A.  Cheney,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army 

COAST  ARTILLERY 
Captain  C.  A.  Kilbourne,  Coast  Artillery  Corps,  U.  S.  Army 

INFANTRY 
Captain  E.  T.  Collins,  ioth  Infantry,  U.  S.  Army 

SIGNAL  CORPS 
Captain  C.  A.  Seoane,  Signal  Corps,  U.  S,  Army 

FIELD  ARTILLERY 
First  Lieut  J,  S.  Hammond,  Field  Artillery,  U.  S.  Army 


PHILADELPHIA   AND    LONDON 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1916 
BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANT 


ElectrotyPed  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  LippincoU  Company 
Tht  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.S.A. 


u  102 


DEDICATION 

TO  THE   MEMORY  OF   OUR  FIRST    PRESI- 
DENT, WHOSE     PROFOUND     STATESMAN- 
SHIP  DEMANDED    FOR    THE    FUTURE  OF 
>-  THIS  DEMOCRACY  THAT  HER  CITIZENS  BE 

^  ORGANIZED  AND  TRAINED  IN  ARMS,  THIS 

OC  BOOK,  DESIGNED  TO  AID    IN    THAT  CON- 

SUMMATION, IS  REVERENTLY  DEDICATED. 


OQ 


CO 


34G620 


"In  proportion  as  the  structure  of  government  gives  force 
to  public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public  opinion  should 
be  enlightened." — Washington. 

"*  *  *  It  proves  more  forcibly  the  necessity  of  obliging 
every  citizen  to  be  a  soldier.  This  was  the  case  with  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  must  be  that  of  every  free  state. 
*  *  our  attention  should  unremittingly  be  fixed  on  the 
safety  of  our  country.  For  a  people  who  are  free  and  who 
mean  to  remain  so,  a  well  organized  and  armed  militia  is 
their  best  security." — Jefferson. 

"The  militia  shall  consist  of  every  able-bodied  male  citi- 
zen of  the  respective  states  *  *  *  who  is  more  than  eigh- 
teen and  less  than  forty-five  years  of  age." — Federal 
Statutes. 


'     PREFACE 

Our  once  protecting  sea  barrier  has  been  converted 
by  the  advances  of  science  into  the  readiest  and  cheap- 
est means  of  communication  between  ourselves  and 
our  trans-oceanic  neighbors.  Our  once  splendid  iso- 
lation ha:s  been  changed  by  civilization  and  commerce  into 
an  intimate  and  indissoluble  inter-relation  with  the 
other  peoples  of  the  world.  It  is  impossible  to  turn 
back,  nor  do  the  younger  generation  desire  to.  They 
choose  rather  that  the  nation  shall  take  its  place 
proudly  in  the  councils  of  the  world ;  prepared  to  meet 
unfalteringly  its  responsibilities,  and  to  maintain  with 
dignity  its  just  standards  of  reasonable  existence. 
This  demands  a  degree  of  military  preparedness  that 
will  secure  us  against  invasion,  and  lend  forcefulness  to 
the  tone  when  the  nation  speaks. 

Our  national  policies  are,  in  the  end,  dictated  by 
private  citizens  through  the  power  of  public  opinion ; 
and  the  very  life  of  the  nation  may  depend  on  what 
those  citizens  have  previously  demanded  in  prepara- 
tion for  defense. 

Our  organic  law  makes  military  service  obligatory 
for  each  male  citizen  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and 
forty-five  years.  This  service  he  may  not  avoid,  if 
called  to  its  performance.  It  is  simple  folly  for  him 
so  to  plan  his  life  as  to  have  to  meet  this  obligation 
unprepared,  unfit  physically,  mentally,  and  morally, 
through  lack  of  training;  it  is  disloyal  and  cowardly 
for  him  to  plan  that  his  fellow  shall  perform  this  duty 
for  him. 

Therefore  an  honest  performance  of  the  duties  of 
citizenship  demands,  first,  that  each  citizen  shall  learn 
enough  about  the  military  service  and  its  needs  to  give 

V 


vi  PREFACE 

him  an  intelligent  opinion  thereon ;  and  second,  that  each 
youth  shall  prepare  himself  reasonably  to  meet  his 
individual  responsibilities  as  a  citizen  soldier.  Thus 
alone  may  we  avoid  having  to  go  to  war  amidst  such 
unpreparedness  as  must  result  in  riational  humiliation, 
with  wholesale  loss  of  life  and  treasure. 

This  book  is  designed  to  supply  the  means  for  at- 
taining these  qualifications  for  citizenship,  to  place  in 
one  volume  the  fundamentals  of  military  service,  its 
meanings  and  its  requirements. 

With  the  limited  time  and  opportunity  available 
for  training  the  citizen  soldier,  he  may  not  hope  to 
embrace  thoroughly  the  whole  art  of  war, — as  does 
the  professional.  Nor  should  he  try.  Successful  mili- 
tary leadership  demands  quick,  unhesitating  decisions, 
and  positive  plans  of  action  carried  through  unfalter- 
ingly. Ability  to  do  this  can  come  only  from  honest  self- 
confidence,  confidence  in  one's  own  knowledge  of  the  art, 
and  in  one's  ability  to  apply  its  rules.  This  confidence 
he  may  attain  by  limiting  his  study  and  training  to 
those  things  that  it  is  possible  for  him  to  learn  thoroughly, 
and  by  avoiding  any  effort  to  go  beyond  that.  Hazy 
conceptions  of  many  things  half  learned,  will  surely 
result  at  the  critical  moment  in  hesitation  and  inde- 
cision, fatal  to  morale  and  to  success  in  battle. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  prescribe  for  the  citizen 
soldier  a  standard  of  efficiency  that  is  well  within  his 
limitations,  and  to  furnish  him  the  corresponding  text- 
book and  system  of  training.  It  then  becomes  possi- 
ble for  him  to  attain  so  thorough  a  training  within 
these  limits,  as  to  justify  an  honest  confidence  in  his 
ability  to  play  his  part  in  the  requirements  of  actual 
service. 

This  book  covers  that  field,  and,  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  Field  Service  Regulations,  and  the  Drill  Regu- 
lations of  his  chosen  arm  of  the  service,  is  sufficient  for 
the  training  of  company  officers,  noncommissioned  offi- 
cers and  privates.    Officers  of  higher  grades,  having  this 


PREFACE  vii 

foundation,  will  study  in  a  broader  field  to  meet  their 
requirements. 

This  book  is  not  intended  to  be  memorized  and  re- 
peated in  recitations.  It  meets  rather  the  applicatory 
system,  in  which  the  student's  proficiency  is  deter- 
mined by  the  understanding  and  skill  he  shows  in  the 
actual  practice  of  the  subject  in  question;  not  by  his 
ability  to  memorize  and  repeat  paragraphs  from  the 
text-book.  Furthermore,  the  great  need  is  to  convey 
the  spirit  and  meanings  of  the  service,  what  we  are  getting 
at  and  how  getting  at  it,  how  to  arouse,  to  foster,  and 
to  direct  that  actuating  spirit  which  makes  an  organi- 
zation a  splendid  machine  for  efficiency.  This  can 
hardly  be  done  in  recitation  formulas — it  may  be  in 
more  intimate  informal  discussions. 

In  war  time  training  every  man  who  joins  the  colors 
will  come  highly  resolved  to  make  himself  a  good 
soldier.  In  peace  time,  he  comes  believing  the  service 
offers  something  he  wants.  In  his  heart  he  wants  to 
be  military,  and  takes  a  pride  in  it.  And,  just  as  a  foot 
ball  player  likes  to  be  one  of  the  best  players  of  a  win- 
ning team,  so  he  wants  to  be  a  good  soldier  in  one  of 
the  best  organizations,  and  wants  to  do  his  share 
toward  making  it  so.  This  book  is  written  for  these 
men,  officers  and  privates ;  and  it  has  failed  of  its  pur- 
pose if  it  does  not  bring  them  such  an  understanding 
of  the  spirit  and  fundamental  principles  of  the  "  mili- 
tary game,"  that  their  team  may  well  become  one  of  the 
best  in  the  service. 

The  Author. 
January  io,  191 6. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I  PAGE 

Our  Military  Policy i 

CHAPTER  II 
Psychology  of  the  Service 7 

Teamwork;  Subordination;  Discipline;  Squad  System; 
Leadership:  The  Battlefield;  Courage  and  Fear. 

CHAPTER  III 

Military  Training 40 

Drill;  Close  Order  Drill;  Commands;  Extended  Order 
Drills;  Battle  Exercises;  Practicallnstruction;  Maneuvers; 
Map  Maneuvers;  Conclusion. 

CHAPTER  IV 
Organization 69 

Object;  Composition  of  Divisions;  The  Brigade;  The 
Regiment;  Depot  Battalions;  The  Company;  The  Staff; 
Our  Land  Forces. 

CHAPTER  V 
Infantry  Drill;  Its  Rules;  Its  Discipline 79 

Suggestions  in  Giving  Instructions. 

CHAPTER  VI 

Cavalry;  Its  Role;  Discipline;  Leaders;  Drill 94 

Mounted  Combat;  Organization;  Armament;  Ceremonies; 
Dismounting  to  Fight  on  Foot;  Battle  Exercises;  Cavalry 
Raids;  The  Fire  Fight. 

CHAPTER  VII 

Field  Artillery 130 

Classification;  Field  Gims;  Howitzers;  Organization;  Pro- 
jectiles; Fuzes;  Powders;  Effects  of  Projectiles;  Marching; 
Driving;  Fitting  Harness;  Camping;  Watering;  Selection 
and  Occupation  of  Position;  Fire  Action;  Determining 
Angle  of  Deflection;  Parallel  Fire;  D.D.;  Methods  of  Lay- 
ing; Methods  of  Fire;  Range;  Fire  for  Adjustment;  Fire  for 
Effect. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Coast  Artillery 166 

The  Personnel;  The  Objects;  The  Limitations;  Warships; 
Seaward  Defense;  Auxiliaries;  Enlisted  Specialists;  Land- 
ward Defense;  The  Field  Army;  Coast  Defenses  in  Action. 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IX  PAG. 

The  Engineer  Corps i86 

General  Discussion;   Field  Intrenchments. 

CHAPTER  X 
The  Signal  Corps 200 

Organization;  Telegraph  Battalions;  Air  Craft;  Training; 
The  Work  of  the  Corps:  Advantages  of  Peace  Training. 

CHAPTER  XI 
Tactical  Rules 212 

CHAPTER  XII 
Military  Courtesy 216 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Guard  Duty 222 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Riot  Duty 228 

CHAPTER  XV 

Small  Arms  Firing 238 

Learning  to  Shoot;  Estimating  Distances. 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Map  Reading  and  Sketching 248 

Simplified  for  Self  Instruction. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Care  of  Arms  and  Equipment 262 

Materials  used,  and  how;  Folding  the  Pyramidal  Tent; 
The  Gold  Metal  Cot. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Army  Regulations 27 1 

Military  Correspondence;  Orders;  Records  and  Returns; 
Public  Property;  Subsistence;  Military  Law. 

FIELD  SERVICE  REGULATIONS,  U.  S.  ARMY 

CHAPTER  XIX 
Patrolling 290 

MiUtary  Information;  Reconnaissance;  Patrolling;  Forma- 
tions; Signals;  The  Conduct  of  the  Patrol;  Getting  Contact; 
Messages. 

CHAPTER  XX 

Security 312 

The  Advance  Guard;  Normal  Formations ;  Getting  Contact; 
Flank  Guards;  Rear  Guards;  March  Outposts;  Outposts; 
General  Considerations;  Selection  of  Outpost  Position; 
Outgards;  Sentinels;  Detached  Posts. 


CONTENTS  3d 

PAGB 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Marches  and  Convoys:  Care  of  Men  and  Horses 331 

Preparation;  Rate  of  March;  Passing  Obstacles;  Escort 
Duty. 

CHAPTER  XXII 
Camps  and  Bivouacs:  Care  of  Men;  Comforts;  Sanitation  343 
Making  and  Breaking  Camp,  using  Squad  System. 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

Supply  and  Transportation 362 

Line  of  Communication  Troops;  when  operating  alone. 

CHAPTER  XXIV 
Sanitation 374 

Function  of  Medical  Corps;  Care  of  Wounded  in  Battle; 
Rules  for  Preserving  Health;  Rules  for  First  Aid  to  Injured; 
Schaefer  Method  for  Resuscitation  from  Drowning. 

CHAPTER  XXV 
Horsemanship 391 

Adjustment  of  Equipment;  Bridling;  Unbridling;  Saddling; 
Preliminary  Rules  for  Handling  Horses;  To  Mount;  Posi- 
tion Mounted;  Holding  the  Reins;  The  Bit;  The  Spur;  The 
Saddle;  The  Aids;  The  DiflFerent  Movements  for  Mounted 
Work  Described  in  Detail;  The  Trot;  The  Gallop;  The 
Canter;  Jumping;  Cross  Country  Work;  Analysis  of  Gaits; 
Swimming;  Training  Horses. 


THE  FUNDAMENTALS  OF 
MILITARY  SERVICE 

CHAPTER  I 

OUR  MILITARY  POLICY 

The  Military  Policy  of  the  United  States  has  been  best 
expressed  in  its  monetary  motto,  "  In  God  We  Trust." 
And  this  with  but  scant  recognition  of  its  vital  corollary, 
that  faith  without  works  availeth  not. 

As  a  nation  we  have  sedulously  avoided  everything 
military.  We  have  not  even  taken  heed  to  the  matter  of 
educating  our  own  youth,  nor  our  millions  of  citizens  com- 
ing from  other  governments,  to  any  true  appreciation  of 
our  nationalism,  our  aspirations,  our  true  traditions  and 
actual  history. 

Fed  on  the  vaporings  of  July  oratory,  and  the  uncen- 
sored  fables  of  school  histories,  from  youth  up  we  have 
learned  only  of  the  mighty  prowess  of  our  arms  ;  of  the  in- 
vincible volunteer,  who  by  millions  springs  to  arms  in  de- 
fense of  his  country.  It  were  a  healthful  thing  for  the 
nation,  to  empty  our  minds  of  this  foolishness,  to  face 
honestly  the  facts  of  history,  and  like  grown  men  and 
honest  citizens  take  heed  from  their  lessons  for  the  future 
welfare  of  our  country. 

In  no  measure  detracting  from  the  lustre  of  those 
patriotic  leaders  of  the  Revolution,  whose  wonderful  pa- 
tience and  self  sacrifice  held  together  a  few  constantly 
shifting  thousands  of  so-called  soldiers,  until  by  the  aid  of 
Jehovah,  France,  and  the  favorable  sentiment  in  England 
herself,  they  won  our  independence — but  rather  adding 
to  the  lustre  of  their  accomplishment  in  the  face  of  such 
discouragements,  let  us  realize  the  truth : 

That  instead  of  our  patriot  fathers  flocking  to  the 

1 


2  ,     OUR  MILITARY  POLICY 

standard,  it  was  only  with  the  greatest  pains  that  Washing- 
ton's pathetically  small  army  was  kept  recruited  at  all. 

That  desertions  were  wholesale,  and  discipline  often 
practically  nil. 

That  bounties,  greater  and  greater,  had  to  be  paid  to 
get  men  to  enlist. 

That  short  term  enlistments  kept  the  personnel  con- 
stantly changing,  and  the  ranks  made  up  of  untrained 
soldiers ;  and  not  infrequently  resulted  on  the  very  eve  of 
battle  in  the  disintegration  of  large  parts  of  the  army 
through  expiration  of  their  terms  of  enlistment. 

That  the  revolutionary  armies  were  in  consequence 
mostly  inefficient,  and  often  incapable  of  sustained  aggres- 
sive campaign,  just  when  the  opportunities  therefor 
offered  themselves. 

That  while  nearly  400,000  enlisted  men  passed  through 
the  ranks,  Washington  never  had  at  one  time  30,000 
effectives. 

And  that  in  the  end,  the  decisive  victory  of  Yorktown 
was  made  possible  only  by  the  timely  presence  of  the 
French  fleet. 

While  these  conditions  could  be  excused  in  the  Revo- 
lution, due  to  the  jealousies  of  the  colonies,  and  the  lack 
of  a  strong  central  government — not  so  in  the  War  of 
1812.  We  were  then  a  nation,  going  to  war  on  our  own 
motion.  But  our  conduct  of  that  war  was  even  more 
unintelligent,  was  in  fact  pathetic,  with  no  victories  during 
the  war  to  remove  the  sting  of  repeated  disasters.  With 
the  same  system  of  asking  the  various  States  to  raise  and 
officer  the  armies,  with  some  responding  and  some  refus- 
ing to  respond,  and  with  our  splendid  leaders  of  the 
Revolution  replaced  by  political  generals,  our  civilian 
planned  campaigns  cut  but  a  sorry  figure. 

We  brought  to  the  colors  for  that  war  the  astounding 
number  of  over  527,000  men — to  oppose  an  English  force 
of  less  than  17,000 — and  were  beaten  and  humiliated  at 
every  turn.  Lack  of  organization,  of  discipline,  and  of 
trained  leadership,  made  our  armies  pathetic  objects,  and 


IN  PAST  WARS  3 

ended  in  allowing  a  small  raiding  force  of  British  to  pene- 
trate to  Washington  and  raze  our  Capitol — "  while  the 
fleeing  President  and  his  cabinet  looked  back  from  the 
hills  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  upon  the  ruin  their  incom- 
petence had  wrought."  What  a  picture  of  national 
humiliation  !     What  a  lesson  for  the  future ! 

When  we  realize  that  England  sent  450,000  men  into 
South  Africa,  rather  than  yield  in  the  Boer  insurrection, 
were  it  not  more  seemly  that  we  accept  with  some  humility 
the  fortunate  issue  of  these  two  wars,  when  England  was 
in  the  death  grapple  with  France,  rather  than  boastfully 
recall  them  as  evidences  of  our  prowess  ? 

In  the  Mexican  War,  success  attended  our  arms, 
against  an  inferior  foe.  There  were  two  conditions 
strongly  in  our  favor:  the  commanding  officers  were 
trained  soldiers,  and  the  scene  of  conflict  was  so  far  re- 
moved that  the  weaknesses  of  our  volunteer  system  could 
not  operate.  By  the  time  the  battlefield  could  be  reached, 
long  continued  training  had  put  something  of  discipline 
into  the  armies ;  while  to  desert  back  home  was  physically 
out  of  the  question. 

And  finally  there  stands  our  great  Civil  War,  the 
glaring  example  of  the  inefficiency  of  our  system,  and  of 
its  extravagant  waste  of  life  and  money.  When  a  small 
trained  force  in  the  hands  of  the  nation  could  have  sup- 
pressed this  rebellion,  by  continuously  underestimating 
the  amount  of  force  necessary  to  pi.t  it  down,  it  was 
allowed  to  grow,  until  millions  were  involved. 

The  same  civilian  control  of  military  matters  quite 
beyond  their  comprehension,  the  same  short  term  enlist- 
ments, the  national  government  again  in  the  position  of 
a  supplicant  to  its  citizens,  begging  them  to  enlist,  offer- 
ing them  bounties  as  an  inducement,  and  in  the  end  having 
to  resort  to  conscription  in  order  to  get  them ;  the  same 
State  control  of  raising  and  officering  regiments ;  deser- 
tions by  the  thousands  and  hundreds  of  thousands,  to 
return  to  their  homes,  or  to  re-enlist  and  thus  get  a  dupli- 
cation of  the  bounty — all  the  weaknesses  of  our  previous 


4  OUR  MILITARY  POLICY 

military  experiences  were  here  repeated  over  and  over 
again.  While  in  the  end,  the  sure  aftermath  of  such  a 
system,  the  nation  is  paying  annually  the  astounding  sum 
of  one  hundred  and  seventy  millions  in  pensions.  Fifty 
years  after  the  close  of  the  war — an  annual  payment  that 
would  build  a  Panama  Canal  every  three  years!  This 
may  be  American — but  it  is  vastly  inefficient,  and  wickedly 
wasteful  and  extravagant. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  short  chapter  actually 
to  give  the  details  of  our  past  system  of  conducting  wars. 
Enough  if  I  am  so  fortunate  as  to  sketch  a  picture  so 
interesting  in  its  suggested  facts  of  history  as  to  lead  the 
thoughtful  citizen  to  take  up  the  serious  reading  of 
Upton's  Military  Policy  of  the  United  States,  in  which 
these  facts  are  clearly  set  forth,  and  the  logical  conclu- 
sions deduced  therefrom.* 

And  this  is  true — ^at  the  conclusion  of  each  of  our 
wars,  those  in  authority  have  been  so  deeply  impressed 
by  the  utter  want  of  scientific  management,  by  the  ap- 
palling waste  of  life  and  money,  that  in  each  case  com- 
missions have  been  called  to  investigate  and  report.  But 
nothing  has  ever  come  of  them.  New  men  were  perhaps 
in  office,  "  perpetual  peace  "  again  blessed  the  land  for  a 
brief  space,  the  lessons  of  the  past  war  were  easily  con- 
signed to  the  file  for  future  reference,  while  the  attention 
of  Congress  was  given  to  the  more  pressing  business  of 
finance. 

And  thus  it  has  ever  been  our  practice,  to  proceed 
cheerfully  sailing  our  good  ship  of  state  in  peaceful 
waters — until  war  is  actually  upon  us — and  then  to  fall  to 
and  try  to  meet  it.  But  not  always  may  we  find  our 
opponent  an  obliging  Lord  Howe,  to  give  us  an  undis- 
turbed year  for  training,  and  actually  to  sail  away  and 
leave  for  our  use  the  rifles,  cannon  and  ammunition  so 
necessary  for  our  army.  The  time  will  come  when  at  the 
outbreak  of  war,  vast  forces  will  be  rushing  upon  us 

*  Even  more  readable,  and  vastly  instructive,  is  "  Empire  and 
Armament,"  by  Professor  Jennings  C.  Wise. 


IN  PAST  WARS  B 

with  terrible  certainty  of  control  and  purpose.  Our  past 
methods  of  unskilled  civilian  direction  of  military  affairs 
will  result  then  in  swift  and  terrible  disaster.  Calling 
for  75,000  men  for  three  months,  to  fight  a  war  which 
was  to  take  two  and  a  half  millions  of  men  four  years  to 
finish,  would  be  a  gaucherie  too  expensive  to  contem- 
plate. Our  military  affairs  will  either  have  been  in  the 
hands  of  military  experts,  and  thus  be  well  ordered  to 
meet  the  test,  or,  if  left  to  the  final  decision  of  the 
emergency,  will  be  in  hopeless  chaos  and  confusion,  de- 
signed to  engulf  us  all  in  sudden  humiliation  and  defeat. 

War  to-day  is  conducted  by  "  nations  in  arms,"  which 
means  that  all  their  citizens  are  naturally  called  Uf>on  to 
bear  each  his  share,  and  that  all  are  given  such  training 
that  they  may  do  this  efficiently.  This  is  true  of  prac- 
tically all  nations,  of  the  democracies  quite  as  well  as  of 
the  monarchies,  and  would  appear  to  be  dependent  not 
so  much  on  the  form  of  government,  as  on  the  states- 
manship and  broad  patriotism  of  the  administrators  of 
the  government. 

This  means  the  mobilization  of  vast  forces,  and  is  a 
work  that  may  not  be  performed  in  a  day,  nor  in  a  year, 
A  machine  so  vast  and  yet  so  complicated,  will  take  time 
in  the  building;  and  if  we  are  to  hope  for  one  that  may 
ever  run  efficiently,  skilled  brains  and  hands  had  better  be 
employed  in  its  construction. 

And  in  concluding  this  sketch,  I  would  say  that  the 
one  lesson  to  be  gleaned  from  a  study  of  the  actual  facts 
of  the  early  history  of  our  country,  would  be  a  true 
appreciation  of  the  present  value  of  the  mature  judg- 
ments of  that  one  grand  character,  who  first  made  pos- 
sible our  independence  as  a  nation,  and  then  by  wise 
statesmanship  assured  that  nation  an  honorable  existence 
among  the  other  nations  of  the  world.  He  brought  to 
the  solution  of  those  vital  problems  a  brave,  undaunted 
spirit,  a  life's  devotion  of  heart  and  brain  and  compre- 
hensive vision,  which  gave  him  a  prescience  almost 
inspired. 


6  OUR  MILITARY  POLICY 

His  public  utterances,  charged  with  paternal  solicitude 
for  the  future  of  his  country,  founded  on  such  profound 
thought  and  vast  knowledge  of  the  affairs  of  men  and 
governments,  conservative,  honest,  uncontaminated  by 
any  political  motive — why  are  they  not  the  sure  guide  for 
earnest  men  to-day?  Why  listen  to  ungrounded  emina- 
tions,  when  such  thoughts  are  at  our  disposals !  The  pity 
is  we  have  to  talk  so  much,  and  listen  so  interminably. 
Personally  I  would  rather  follow  the  reasoning  of  that 
Man  who  knew,  and  stake  the  safety  of  my  country  on 
his  honest  conclusions. 

Fourthly.  That  every  man  of  the  proper  age,  and  ability  of 
body,  is  firmly  bound,  by  the  social  compact,  to  perform  personally, 
his  proportion  of  military  duty  for  the  defense  of  the  state. 

Fifthly.     That  all  men,  of  the  legal  military  age,  should  be 
armed,  enrolled   and  held   responsible   for   different   degrees  of 
military  service. 
— Washington's  letter  of  transmittal  with  Secretary  Knox  plan. 


CHAPTER  II 

PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

Military  Service  is  our  most  ancient  public  insti- 
tution. In  the  history  of  the  world  no  free  people  have 
ever  existed  without  it.  From  the  first  grouping  of  men 
into  communities,  certain  of  the  ablest  members  have 
always  been  organized  as  a  fighting  machine  for  the  pro- 
tection of  their  property  and  civil  rights — and  these  men 
have  been  honored  in  the  measure  of  their  prowess. 
Older  than  the  Church,  older  than  taxation,  this  honored 
institution  has  always  demanded  of  membership  in  a 
community,  of  citizenship  in  a  nation,  that  the  most 
worthy  members  should  give  military  service  in  time  of 
need. 

Far  from  being  a  characteristic  of  imperialism,  uni- 
versal military  service  is  the  very  comer-stone  of  the 
edifice  of  Democracy.  Where  the  liberties  of  the  people 
are  the  one  aspiration  of  government,  the  people  must 
be  trained  and  ready  to  defend  these  liberties.  Witness 
Greece  and  Rome  in  their  glory,  and  what  occasioned 
their  fall ;  witness  Switzerland  and  France  to-day,  de- 
fending their  honor  and  existence.  And  that  Democracy 
alone  may  hope  to  thrive,  whose  citizens  recognize  the 
obligations  of  citizenship  therein,  whose  citizens  seek  not 
what  they  may  get  out  of  the  State,  but  rather  to  fit 
themselves  to  give  individual  service  to  the  State.  When 
public  opinion  comes  to  measure  the  success  of  a  man's 
life  by  his  service  to  the  State- and  to  his  fellows,  rather 
than  by  the  fortune  he  has  amassed  for  selfish  aims,  then 
public  opinion  is  worthy  to  control  a  great  nation,  and 
may  hope  to  hold  that  nation  in  the  highest  place  in  the 
councils  of  the  world. 

Our  nation  to-day  feels  the  stirrings  of  such  an  opin- 
ion, its  best  citizens  are  seeking  means  to  give  it  unselfish 

7 


8  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

individual  service.  If  that  spirit  grows,  particularly  in 
the  youth  of  the  nation,  there  is  high  promise  that,  realiz- 
ing past  weaknesses,  we  may  accept  a  standard  of  service 
that  will  assure  for  the  nation  a  glorious  future. 

The  first  step  in  considering  the  military  service  is  to 
appreciate  something  of  its  meanings.  You  are  entering 
a  system  as  old  as  history,  whose  tenets  are  unchanged 
by  time,  whose  service  to-day  requires  the  same  high 
qualities  of  manhood,  leadership  and  morale.  Its  tre- 
mendous responsibilities,  for  the  lives  of  your  fellows 
and  the  safety  of  your  nation,  appeal  to  a  man  of  red 
blood ;  yet  give  him  pause,  if  he  feel  himself  unfitted  to 
meet  them  worthily. 

The  guiding  principles  of  this  military  machine  are 
team  work  and  subordination.  Its  animating  soul  is 
discipline. 

Teamwork. — In  battle,  and  in  preparation  for  battle, 
there  are  but  rare  occasions  for  "  individual  plays."  Suc- 
cess may  be  attained  only  through  the  most  unselfish 
playing  for  the  team.  And  not  only  must  the  elements 
of  each  organization  thus  work  together,  but  the  different 
arms,  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery,  must  often  sacrifice 
brilliant  opportunities  and  even  meet  local  defeats,  loyally 
working  for  the  common  good  of  the  whole  team.  Thus 
each  unit,  from  an  army  down  to  a  squad,  is  considered 
and  trained  as  a  team,  each  under  its  own  team  captain. 
Its  elements  are  taught  to  work  together  for  the  common 
good,  each  under  its  appropriate  leader ;  and  these  leaders 
are  taught  not  alone  the  principles  of  good  leadership,  but 
the  spirit  and  technique  of  co-operation  and  loyal  team- 
work. Thus  the  brigade  commanders  train  and  handle 
their  brigade  teams  as  individual  units,  yet  all  work  to- 
gether for  the  success  of  the  Division  team  to  which  they 
belong.  And  thus  in  the  last  analysis  the  squad  leaders 
train  their  men  into  efficient  squad  team?,  and  these  squads 
are  the  elements  which  the  captain  handles  in  his  team,  the 
company.  These  squads  are  the  unit  teams,  and  by  suc- 
cessive groupings  into  larger  units  they  ultimately  make 


SUBORDINATION  9 

the  army  team  with  which  we  face  the  enemy  in  battle. 
They  are  the  prime  consideration  for  the  individual  sol- 
dier. Here  he  learns  the  elements  of  the  military  game, 
co-operation,  discipline  and  leadership ;  and  any  one 
member  may  properly  aspire  to  the  leadership,  may  have 
it  thrust  upon  him,  and  therefore  should  strive  to  fit  him- 
self to  meet  it  worthily. 

Subordination. — The  individual  in  each  grade  of  office 
has  his  own  peculiar  responsibilities,  and  must  be  held 
accountable  for  their  strict  observance.  Subordination 
rests  on  a  thorough  knowledge  of  what  these  responsibili- 
ties are,  on  their  observance  by  all,  both  above  and  below, 
and  on  the  proper  exercise  by  each  of  his  own  functions. 
Particularly  must  the  superior  take  pains  to  give  full  play 
to  the  powers  of  his  subordinates,  always  sustaining  them 
if  possible  in  the  proper  exercise  of  the  function  of  their 
grade;  thus  emphasizing  their  authority  over  their  men 
and  encouraging  initiative  and  willingness  to  take  re- 
sponsibility, so  necessary  to  success  in  campaign  and 
battle.  They  should  not  be  corrected  or  criticized  in  the 
presence  of  the  men  unless  absolutely  necessary,  lest  their 
authority  be  weakened.  If  a  subordinate  has  used  mis- 
taken judgment,  correct  him  in  private,  and  let  him  make 
the  correction  himself  before  his  men.  Hold  the  sergeant, 
not  the  individual  private,  responsible  for  failure  in  per- 
formance of  duty,  in  care  of  equipment,  etc.  This  will 
make  the  soldier  appreciate  the  authority  of  his  squad 
leader,  and  the  leader  appreciate  his  own  responsibilities. 
All  this  will  require  patience  and  resource.  But  remem- 
ber that  you  are  training  team  captains,  whose  efficiency 
will  be  of  inestimable  service  to  you  later,  when  work  is 
to  be  done. 

Discipline. — The  most  important  element  in  military 
training!  As  vital  to  the  success  of  an  army,  as  live  steam 
to  the  operation  of  a  locomotive.  Without  it  the  best  of 
individual  soldiers  are  but  an  armed  mob,  to  be  made 
a  mockery  by  a  trained  foe ;  with  a  high  type  of  discipline 
an  army's  powers  are  increased  tenfold.     Every  great  gen- 


10  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

eral  in  history  has  recognized  this,  and  his  success  has 
been  measured  by  his  abihty  to  inspire  discipline. 

DiscipHne  represents  seventy-five  per  cent  of  batde 
efficiency.  Men  and  arms  we  may  command,  but  money 
cannot  buy  discipline,  nor  munition  plants  supply  it.  It 
is  of  the  very  essence  of  training,  and  springs  from  the 
intelligence  and  conscientious  work  of  the  leaders  who 
must  inspire  it,  or  whose  incompetence  will  render  its 
attainment  impossible.  This  is  what  makes  long  thorough 
training  so  necessary,  what  makes  military  men  shudder 
at  the  thought  of  war  without  adequate  preparation.  Our 
history  is  full  of  instances  where  otherwise  splendid 
forces  have  been  brutally  defeated  for  lack  of  discipline. 
Intangible  and  psychic,  the  outgrowth  of  patient,  skillful 
culture — it  is  no  concrete  thing  to  be  handed  to  troops  as 
they  mobilize  for  war.  It  is  as  difficult  to  attain  as  it  is 
necessary  for  success.  Only  adequate  training  may  sup- 
ply it,  yet  it  may  be  lost  in  a  day  through  the  incom- 
petency of  leaders.  Hence  it  is  the  one  vital  thing  for  you 
to  understand — to  which  this  chapter  is  largely  given. 

Discard  any  vague  conceptions  of  discipline  as  associ- 
ated only  with  punishments  and  brutality.  We  mean  some- 
thing far  higher  than  that.  General  Sherman  says : 
"  Discipline  is  the  soul  of  armies."  This  means  it  is  the 
spirit — the  actuating  spirit  that  inspires  individuals  to 
deeds  of  heroism,  that  gives  them  heart  for  patient  en- 
durance of  untold  hardships,  that  makes  them  freely  sur- 
render individual  wills  to  the  will  of  the  leader,  that  binds 
them  into  a  splendid  fellowship,  aspiring,  sacrificing,  train- 
ing together  for  a  common  cause.  That  is  the  discipline 
that  you  must  foster  in  your  organization,  To  learn  how 
to  arouse  it  is  the  first  duty  of  the  leader. 

Discipline  may  be  defined  as  that  psychic  something 
which  is  always  recognized  by  its  manifestations  of  ever 
present  respect  for  superiors,  and  instant  cheerful  obedi- 
ence, not  only  to  orders  given,  but  to  a  high  personal  sense 
of  duty.  It  leads  directly  to  esprit,  from  which  spring 
morale;   and,  other  things  being  equal,  with  the  morale 


THE  SQUAD  SYSTEM  11 

fifty  men  can  beat  two  hundred.  How  clear  then  is  the 
course  for  the  successful  leader — inflexible  in  discipline, 
arousing  and  fostering  in  his  command  pride  and  esprit, 
till  finally  they  have  acquired  a  morale  that  makes  his 
men  believe  themselves  invincible.  Discipline  is  then  not 
the  end,  but  a  means  to  an  end — the  end  that  each  man 
shall  be  imbued  with  a  spirit  of  loyalty  to  leader  and  to 
organization,  which  will  result  in  unity  and  promptness  of 
action  in  instant  response  to  the  ivill  of  the  leader. 

Military  Training. — The  one  end  sought  is  so  to  have 
organized,  trained,  and  disciplined  the  thousands  of  indi- 
viduals who  compose  an  army,  that  they  may  be  made  all 
to  respond  as  one  unit  instantly  and  effectively  to  the  will 
of  the  chief.  This  is  the  military  machine  working  per- 
fectly. Easily  possible  on  the  drill  field,  every  one  at 
ease,  well  fed  and  complacent ;  it  can  be  done  amid  the 
strain  and  roar  of  the  battlefield,  only  when  training  has 
made  true  leaders  of  every  corporal  and  general,  and 
developed  an  unshakable  discipline  in  all. 

The  Squad  System  is  the  foundation  for  this  training. 
In  each  branch  of  the  service  it  may  be  accepted  as 
fundamental  that  the  smooth  working  management 
of  the  company  and  its  efficiency  are  dependent  upon,  first, 
the  grouping  of  the  men  into  permanent  squads  under  non- 
commissioned officers  assigned  as  leaders,  who  are  trained 
as  such,  and  are  held  responsible  for  the  discipline  and 
proper  performance  of  all  the  duties  of  their  men  in  the 
field  or  in  quarters;  and  second,  on  the  faithfulness  and 
intelligence  with  which  the  commander  uses  these  squad 
leaders  in  all  administration,  each  group  as  a  team,  its 
leader  as  a  team  captain. 

The  Infantry  Regulations  particularly  recognize  the 
psychological  necessity  for  developing  in  peace  training 
the  qualities  of  leadership  in  the  noncommissioned  officers ; 
and  that  the  constant  use  of  the  squad  system  in  adminis- 
tration and  drill  is  the  best  available  method  of  accom- 
plishing it.  The  exigencies  of  campaign  and  battle  will 
continually  place  noncommissioned  officers  in  unexpected 


12  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

command,  and  if  their  peace  training  is  to  be  reasonable, 
it  must  prepare  them  to  meet  these  responsibiHties.  The 
commanding  officer  who  is  conscientiously  training  his 
command  for  efficiency  will  take  every  means  of  develop- 
ing his  subordinates  into  good  troop  leaders. 

For  administrative  purposes  in  camp  or  quarters  the 
grouping  into  squads  may  be  determined  at  will  by  physi- 
cal conditions,  but  it  must  always  be  such  that  when  the 
organization  is  formed  for  tactical  purposes,  these  groups 
will  unite  into  the  permanent  squads  required  by  the  drill 
manual  of  the  arm. 

Here  then  in  your  own  company  is  provided  the 
machinery  for  the  peace  training  of  your  noncommissioned 
officers  in  troop  leadership.  Make  them  in  reality  team 
captains  of  their  own  squads,  use  them  as  such  in  all 
matters  of  administration  about  the  quarters  and  particu- 
larly in  the  field,  train  them  to  the  responsibilities  of 
leadership,  and  train  yourself  to  such  system  in  all  your 
work  as  will  enable  you  to  use  squad  leaders  in  every- 
thing you  do ;  and  change  the  personnel  of  your  squads 
as  little  as  possible.  This  organization  is  the  backbone  of 
efficiency. 

To  install  it  is  going  to  tax  your  patience  and  ingenuity, 
but  it  is  really  essential  that  you  do  it,  and  thus  develop 
your  subordinates  into  efficient  leaders  ;  and  soon  you  will 
get  your  reward  in  commanding  an  organization  which 
will  be  a  pride  and  comfort  to  you;  which  will  work 
smoothly,  all  but  automatically,  the  burden  quite  ofif  your 
shoulders.  Then  if  war  comes,  and  you  have  to  train 
quickly  some  fifty  or  sixty  raw  recruits,  you  will  have 
established  a  system  to  make  it  possible,  and  a  corps  of 
assistants  to  make  it  easy. 

Leadership. — What  then  is  your  first  consideration,  if 
you  wish  to  succeed  in  the  military  service  ?  To  fit  your- 
self to  he  team  captain  of  your  group.  To  be  a  good  team 
captain  requires  first  that  you  be  a  good  disciplinarian, 
next  that  you  acquire  and  use  those  qualities  that  charac- 


LEADERSHIP  13 

terize  natural  leaders  of  men.  In  all  dealings  with  your 
men  you  must  have  their  respect,  unhesitating  obedience, 
and,  if  you  are  man  enough  to  win  it,  their  enthusiastic 
loyalty. 

To  develop  these  qualities  of  leadership  discussed  be- 
low should  appeal  particularly  to  the  citizen  soldier,  as 
they  will  be  of  equal  value  to  him  in  his  civil  pursuits. 

1.  To  attain  the  confidence  and  respect  of  your  men, 
the  first  requisite  is  superior  knowledge.  That  will  give 
you  the  self-confidence  to  appear  as  a  leader,  and  will 
justify  your  men  in  "following  you.  Therefore  never 
appear  before  them  unprepared  to  play  your  part  in  the 
game.  You  are  a  sorry  object  pretending  to  lead  when 
there  are  men  in  ranks  who  know  your  part  better  than 
you  do. 

There  are  many  circumstances  in  which  a  leader  may 
advise  with  his  subordinates,  but  it  must  be  clear  in  the 
end  that  the  judgment  is  his  own.  It  is  possible,  too,  for 
the  best  men  to  make  mistakes — these  should  always  be 
frankly  acknowledged  as  such,  and  no  attempt  made  to 
bluff  them  through.  Apologies  and  explanations  why  are 
but  harmful.  The  men  appreciate  manliness ;  you  can- 
not fool  them  long,  and  found  out  as  a  bluffer,  your  leader- 
ship is  hopeless. 

2.  It  is  proper  that  you  should  aspire  to  popularity,  to 
be  beloved  of  your  men,  to  be  one  of  those  leaders  of 
whom  it  is  boasted  that  their  men  would  follow  them  any- 
where. And  remember  that  while  history  speaks  of  such 
leaders  generally  in  the  higher  grades,  their  success  was 
made  possible  only  by  the  fact  that  their  armies  were  made 
up  of  many  small  groups,  in  which  the  men  were  follow- 
ing their  leaders  with  equal  loyalty. 

But  do  not  be  deluded  into  thinking  that  this  popularity 
is  attained  by  easy  going  methods,  by  favoritism,  by  wink- 
ing at  delinquencies  and  overlooking  failures  in  strict  per- 
formance of  duty.  Such  popularity  fades  when  the  real 
test  comes,  and  changes  to  disrespect,  insubordination  and 
contempt,  when  real  men  are  at  the  fore,  leading  through 


14  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

hardships  and  dangers.  Build  then  your  popularity  on 
the  firmer  qualities  of  justice  and  fairness  to  all,  inflexibil- 
ity in  demanding  obedience  and  faithful  performance  of 
duty,  and  constant  vigilance  for  the  welfare  and  interests 
of  your  men,  and  above  all,  by  forethought  and  prepara- 
tion, on  such  conduct  of  your  office  as  will  inspire  respect 
and  even  admiration  for  your  ability  as  a  leader. 

The  popular  noncommissioned  officer  is  the  one  whose 
squad  is  the  most  snappy  and  efficient.  His  men  admire 
him  and  they  have  the  habit  of  jumping  when  he  speaks. 
He  does  not  waste  their  time  through  lack  of  forethought, 
nor  make  them  do  unnecessary  work  through  lack  of  head 
work.  His  brain  is  active,  and  in  each  case  alert  to  such 
management  as  is  easiest  for  his  men.  He  does  not  use- 
lessly march  them  around  three  sides  of  a  square  when  a 
direct  movement  would  have  accomplished  the  purpose. 
He  demands  strict  compliance  with  his  orders,  and  close 
attention  from  all  whenever  he  is  giving  general  instruc- 
tions; and  sees  that  all  work,  hardship,  or  privilege  is 
fairly  apportioned  among  them. 

3.  It  is  psychologically  true  that  every  group  of  men, 
working  together  for  any  purpose,  soon  comes  to  have  a 
soul  of  its  own.  It  is  true  of  a  troop,  it  is  true  of  a  squad. 
The  good  leader  learns  to  know  that  soul,  and  deal  intelli- 
gently with  it — knows  its  aspirations,  its  limits  of  en- 
durance, how  to  inspire  it  to  increased  endeavor,  how  to 
inspirit  it  when  discouraged  in  fatigue  or  hardship,  how  to 
arouse  its  interest  in  the  work  at  hand.  Let  him  always 
consider  this  in  planning  the  work  for  his  men,  in  con- 
trolling them  in  their  work.  There  are  many  means  of 
appeal  to  this  spirit ;  you  must  learn  and  use  them.  You 
can  make  lagging  footsteps  quicken  and  fatigue-dulled 
minds  brighten,  just  as  martial  music  will  make  a  jaded 
column  spring  to  life ;  the  men  are  no  less  tired,  but  new 
nerve-forces  have  supervened  and  made  them  forget  the 
fatigue.  This  soul  is  as  susceptible  to  bad  influences  as  to 
good.  How  disastrous  if  the  leader  oflFend  it.  How  im- 
portant that  he  be  in  touch  with  it,  and  treat  it  intelligently. 


LEADERSHIP  15 

4.  It  is  spirit  that  makes  the  soldier  endure  and  dare. 
Especially  among  volunteers  spirit  will  carry  through 
where  cold-blooded  training  alone  must  fail.  Watch  the 
good  troop  leader ;  on  the  march,  in  camp,  at  drill,  in  the 
school  room,  by  word  and  even  more  iby  thoughtful  con- 
duct of  the  work  in  hand,  he  is  always  fostering  spirit.  His 
men  know  that  what  he  requires  is  reasonable,  they  feel 
that  he  is  regarding  their  welfare  in  every  move,  making 
their  work  as  interesting  as  possible,  and  conducive  to 
future  success.  It  is  even  possible  to  attain  such  a  group 
spirit  that  the  failure  or  delinquency  of  one  man  will  so 
hurt  the  feelings  of  the  group  that  his  punishment  may 
rest  on  that  alone. 

5.'  Every  man  delights  in  work  well  done,  in  actually 
doing  well  what  he  puts  his  hand  to.  Remember  this 
when  you  direct  the  drill  or  work  of  your  men.  They 
enjoy  being  snappy,  being  efficient,  doing  the  right  thing 
at  the  right  time,  avoiding  wasted  time  or  energy — and 
they  are  disgusted  with  the  reverse  of  these.  Appreciation 
of  this  principle  will  cause  a  helpful  chagrin  when  you  see 
failure  result  from  your  own  inability  or  inefficient  leader- 
ship. You  are  applying  it  when  you  commend  some  man 
for  particularly  good  performance,  when  you  call  out 
"  Good,"  as  the  men  execute  a  movement  properly  at 
drill. 

6.  The  state  of  discipline,  a  mental  status,  is  attained 
more  by  a  system  of  rewards  than  of  punishments — yet 
both  are  necessary  and  potent  factors.  And  do  not  im- 
agine that  there  is  a  class  to  be  controlled  by  punishments 
alone.  For  in  voluntary  service  there  is  no  class  of  men 
in  which  you  may,  not  appeal  successfully  to  the  men's 
better- qualities.  If  such  individuals  arrive,  the  spirit  of 
the  group  should  force  them  into  such  uncomfortable 
isolation  that  they  will  either  strive  to  emulate  the  good 
or  else  soon  withdraw. 

In  the  system  of  rewards  the  leader  finds  the  most 
powerful  ally  in  building  up  that  discipline  which  leads 
to  esprit  and  morale.     He  must  be  on  the  lookout  for 


16  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

opportunities  to  use  it.  A  word  or  even  a  look  of  appro- 
bation is  often  sufficient.  In  every  group  will  be  found 
natural  leaders,  men  who,  when  hardships  bear  down  the 
spirits  of  the  majority,  are  found  doing  more  than  their 
share,  and  not  only  by  example,  but  often  by  cheerful  word 
or  quip,  are  unconsciously  inspiriting  the  whole  to  better 
endurance.  The  leader  must  find  every  opportunity  to 
show  public  recognition  of  the  merit  of  these  men,  thus 
strengthening  their  influence  with  their  fellows.  Give 
them  the  important  missions  ;  be  sure  it  is  such  a  one  who 
is  detailed  to  any  conspicuous  or  daring  duty;  if  favor 
must  be  shown,  be  sure  it  goes  to  such  a  man.  Again, 
there  are  always  found  would-be  leaders  of  the  opposite 
temperament,  chronic  pessimists  and  kickers,  who  by 
example  and  frequently  by  grumblings,  lower  the  average 
of  endurance  and  performance.  It  is  equally  important 
that  the  leader  undermine  the  influence  of  these  men, 
quietly  giving  them  the  disagreeable  details  that  often 
must  be  performed,  and  never  making  the  vital  mistake 
of  appearing  to  approve  by  selecting  such  a  man  for  a 
conspicuous  detail.  How  absolutely  important  then  that 
a  leader  truly  know  the  personalities  of  his  men.  Not 
only  must  he  pick  the  man  best  qualified  for  the  task  at 
hand,  but  he  must  consider  the  effect  of  his  selection  on  the 
morale  of  his  group.  And  this  demands  constant  observa- 
tion of  his  men  at  their  work.  What  supreme  confidence 
in  divine  guidance  must  inspire  that  captain,  who,  at  the 
end  of  a  hard  hot  march,  has  the  first  detail  pitch  his  tent, 
roll  the  walls,  arrange  the  cot  and  fly  net,  and  then  passes 
quietly  to  repose,  while  the  soldiers  perform  their  arduous 
duties  unobserved.  If  this  captain  were  required  to  detail 
an  orderly  to  the  colonel  the  next  day,  he  might  easily  pick 
some  man  who  through  indifference  or  meanness,  had  been 
a  humiliation  to  his  squad  the  day  before. 

Commanders  are  better  paid  and  better  mounted  that 
they  may  endure  more  than  those  under  them ;  greater 
and  greater  grow  the  demands  for  tireless  vigilance  as 
the  grade  of  the  officer  increases.     In  this  truth  lies  one  of 


LEADERSHIP  17 

the  main  reasons  why  as  war  continues  we  find  the 
younger  and  more  virile  men  attaining  the  superior  com- 
mands. An  ambitious  troop  leader  will  avoid  dissipation, 
conserving  his  energies  in  peace  that  he  may  draw  on  them 
unsparingly  in  war,  and  that  he  may  not  need  then  to  rest 
when  iby  vigilance  he  might  be  guarding  the  welfare  of  his 
men  and  building  up  their  morale  for  the  supreme  test 
to  come. 

7.  Punishments  cannot  be  administered  in  accordance 
with  any  set  standard.  Every  offense  contains  the  ele- 
ments of  the  personal  equation  of  the  offender,  the  attend- 
ing circurnstances,  the  motive,  and  always  the  effect  on  the 
discipline  of  the  group.  Your  decision  must  be  the  voice 
of  calm  impartial  justice.  A  troop  leader  is  ever  a  judge, 
guarding  the  tone  of  his  group  as  a  good  judge  guards  the 
tone  of  his  civil  community. 

The  authority  in  you  to  reward  and  punish  the  acts  of 
individual  men  is  a  great  power  for  good  or  for  evil — not 
alone  to  the  individual,  but  through  your  treatment  of  his 
case  to  the  whole  group.  It  is  in  your  power  to  ruin  a 
man's  career,  if  yOu  will,  as  it  is  to  take  a  weakling  and,  by 
proper  treatment,  make  a  man  and  soldier  of  him.  A 
sense  of  this  should  give  the  leader  pause  when  he  is  about 
to  emit  some  hasty  judgment  formed  in  passion — the  very 
passion  often  the  result  of  an  inner  consciousness  of  his 
own  failure  or  weakness.  Cultivate,  then,  patience  and 
justice,  a  knowledge  of  human  nature  and  of  "  cause  and 
effect."  It  is  of  the  greatest  value  too  to  be  able  to  see 
from  the  soldier's  view-point,  as  well  as  from  your  own. 
Could  that  always  be  done  it  would  he  the  controlling 
factor  in  most  correct  decisions. 

8.  Since  both  punishments  and  rewards  are  given  for 
their  effect  on  the  discipline  and  morale  of  the  whole 
group,  they  should  always  follow  the  act  as  closely  as 
possible,  thus  giving  full  effect.  Where  the  reward  is  a 
word  of  commendation,  or  the  punishment  one  of 
reprimand,  this  may  always  be  done.  In  any  case  the  first 
steps  toward  punishment,  where  punishment  is  necessary, 

2 


18  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

should  be  promptly  taken  to  avoid  discussions  and  argu- 
ment among  the  men  and  the  growth  among  them  of  the 
feeling  that  perhaps  the  "  old  man  hasn't  the  nerve  "  to 
back  up  his  authority. 

9.  Be  calm  in  emergency ;  unruffled,  even  sardonic  if 
you  have  it  in  you,  in  the  face  of  hardships ;  unperturbed 
and  even  casual  in  the  face  of  danger.  The  psychological 
power  of  mental  suggestion  is  now  well  understood,  and 
accepted  as  one  of  the  surest  means  of  controlling  men. 
If  you  are  a  real  leader  your  men  will  take  their  mental 
attitude  from  what  yours  appears  to  be.  In  danger  they 
will  watch  your  movements,  even  facial  expression,  for 
reassurance.  It  is  then  that  you  drop  some  casual  re- 
mark, "  borrow  the  makings  "  and  roll  a  cigarette,  do  any 
simple  thing  naturally,  showing  that  you  are  at  ease  and 
confident  in  these  abnormal  circumstances,  and  your  men 
regain  their  wavering  confidence,  feeling  that  you  are  not 
afraid.  So,  in  time  of  unavoidable  hardship,  you  must 
avoid  showing  annoyance  or  impatience.  Your  sardonic 
acceptance  of  necessary  conditions  will  unconsciously  lead 
to  theirs,  and  save  the  nerve  strain  and  damage  to  esprit 
which  result  from  grumbling,  and  bucking,  and  cursing 
out  everything  in  general.  And  in  emergency  you  must 
show  perfect  self-control.  Remember  that  your  conduct 
will  determine  that  of  your  men.  If  you  are  excited,  they 
will  be  more  so.  The  emergency  will  call  for  perhaps 
the  most  accurate,  determined,  self -controlled  work,  and 
if  your  heart  has  jumped  into  your  throat  and  made  your 
voice  quaver  and  your  ideas  confused  (and  this  will  hap- 
pen to  the  best  of  men),  nothing  but  disaster  can  result 
if  you  communicate  this  to  your  men.  You  will  gain  time 
and  success  in  the  end.  if  you  take  time  now  to 
swallow  your  heart,  and  regain  perfect  self-control, 
before  you  say  one  word  to  betray  your  perturbation. 
Then  with  calm  self-assured  demeanor  give  your  direc- 
tions as  becomes  a  real  leader.  Directions  so  given  are  a 
great  comfort  to  the  men,  and  assure  steady  intelligent 
execution.     We  are  now  considering  one  of  the  most 


LEADERSHIP  19 

characteristic  failures  in  inexperienced  troop  leadership. 
Try  to  train  yourself  so  that  you  will  be  one  of  the 
exceptions,  by  acquiring  the  habit  in  any  given  situation, 
of  being  first  sure  of  yourself,  and  then  calmly  giving 
directions  to  your  men. 

ID.  It  is  the  genius  of  war  to  seize  the  fleeting  oppor- 
tunity. Train  yourself  to  quick  decisions,  carried  out  with 
calm  self-confidence.  In  the  hesitation  which  surprise 
causes  lies  its  great  advantage.  Hence  .the  danger  of  am- 
buscade, etc.  The  enemy  gets  the  jump  while  you  are  try- 
ing to  decide  what  to  do.  It  is  not  so  important  what  you 
do,  as  that  you  do  something  and  do  it  quickly.  Make  a 
quick  decision  and  then  calmly  carry  it  out.  Do  not  change 
to  another  plan  that  may  look  better  an  instant  later. 
Vacillation  destroys  all  confidence  in  a  leader.  Take  a 
simple  plan,  a  bold  one,  and  then  unquestioningly  bend 
every  energy  to  its  accomplishment.  You  may  train  your- 
self for  this  in  peace  time.  How  often  in  civil  life  you  are 
present  at  some  accident  or  emergency.  There  is  gen- 
erally someone  in  the  crowd  whose  mind  has  acted  in- 
stantaneously, who  has  jumped  in  and  done  the  right 
thing.  Question  your  mental  processes,  why  weren't  you 
the  man?  In  the  many  small  affairs  of  daily  life,  experi- 
ment with  making  quick  decisions,  till  you  get  the  habit  of 
deciding  quickly,  and  acquire  confidence  in  your  ability 
to  do  so  correctly.  This  will  be  of  the  greatest  value  to 
you,  to  your  men,  and  to  your  superiors — and  if  oppor- 
tunity comes  you  may  grasp  it  to  your  great  honor  and 
that  of  your  cause. 

II.  "  Soldiers  are  like  children."  There  is  one  relation 
to  the  leader  in  which  this  is  true.  He  is  a  father  to  them. 
On  the  battlefield  at  Santiago  I  saw  a  young  second  lieu- 
tenant put  his  hand  on  the  shoulder  of  a  grey-haired  old 
soldier  and  call  him  his  boy,  and  there  was  confidence  in 
the  face  of  the  old  man  as  he  started  alone  on  his  mission. 
This  feeling  of  mutual  sympathy  and  confidence  will 
spring  from  thoughtful  leadership,  and  you  should  aspire 
to  it,  and  make  yourself  worthy  of  it. 


20  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

12.  History  records  many  daring  deeds  where  an  in- 
trepid leader  has  led  his  men  to  victory  against  seemingly 
overwhelming  odds,  and  all  credit  is  given  to  his  courage. 
A  mistake.  There  may  be  hundreds  who  would  have 
dared  lead  the  charge,  but  their  men  were  not  prepared. 
Credit  must  be  given  not  alone  to  courage,  but  even  more 
to  the  intelligent  leadership  that  had  brought  the  men  to 
this  opportunity  prepared  to  meet  it  successfully;  confi- 
dent in  the  ability  of  their  leader,  disciplined  and  buoyed 
up  by  esprit,  in  the  best  possible  condition  of  mind  and 
body  through  their  leader's  constant  exercise  of  vigilance 
for  their  daily  welfare  on  the  march  and  in  the  camp.  The 
making  of  the  heroic  leader  who  will  win  laurels  on  the 
battlefield  begins  surely  in  the  drill  hall  at  home,  and  fol- 
lows throughout  the  conduct  of  each  day's  work  in  camp 
and  on  campaign.  He  must  be  not  only  a  disciplinarian 
and  a  psychologist,  but  something  of  a  doctor,  a  cook,  a 
tailor,  saddler  and  cobbler,  a  veterinarian  and  a  black- 
smith. He  will  follow  up  his  men  like  children,  and  see 
that  they  are  properly  clothed,  fed,  rested,  entertained, 
kept  in  health  and  spirits,  giving  freely  of  his  vitality 
that  he  may  reasonably  demand  tremendous  exertion  from 
them  when  the  opportunity  offers. 

13.  Every  war  has  had  its  famous  brigades,  famous 
regiments  and  famous  batteries.  They  had  made  a  repu- 
tation for  success  and  easily  maintained  it.  Their  appear- 
ance on  the  battlefield  was  heralded  with  acclaim  by  other 
organizations.  Their  personnel  was  easily  kept  up  because 
good  men  were  anxious  to  join  them.  This  may  be  equally 
true  in  training  organizations  in  peace  time.  Let  them 
get  a  reputation  for  excellence  and  they  are  more  excellent, 
and  their  personnel  is  easily  maintained  from  the  best 
men.  This  is  one  of  the  surest  means  of  attaining  troop 
spirit — to  excell  in  something,  it  may  be  in  shooting,  in 
horsemanship,  in  close  order  drill,  or  in  having  the  best 
mess.  The  men  begin  to  take  pride  in  their  organization, 
in  their  leaders,  and  good  men  begin  to  seek  admission 
to  its  membership.     This  may  be  as  true  of  a  squad  as  of 


LEADERSHIP  21 

a  company,  and  should  be  the  proper  object  of  attainment 
for  the  squad  leader.  Men  take  delight  in  doing  those 
things  in  which  they  are  displaying  skill  and  efficiency, 
With  the  bodily  and  mental  training  that  comes  from  doing 
things  well,  come  self-respect,  laudable  pride,  and  an 
assurance  that  strengthen  the  individual  character  and 
weld  the  whole  organization  into  a  potent  force  for  accom- 
plishment. 

14.  A  good  leader  is  as  one  with  his  men,  he  si>eaks 
their  language,  he  shares  their  blessings  and  their  hard- 
ships, he  is  jealous  of  their  name,  he  defends  their  sensibil- 
ities and  their  rights  in  the  larger  organization,  in  fact  he 
is  the  recognized  guardian  of  their  welfare,  physical  and 
mental,  as  individuals  and  as  a  group.  He  becomes  their 
hero  and  is  affectionately  nicknamed.  Making  camp  after 
a  hard  march,  he  will  not  accept  an  invitation  to  lunch 
while  his  men  go  hungry  awaiting  a  delayed  wagon;  he 
would  not  take  shelter  while  his  men  lay  out  in  a  storm. 
He  would  be  the  first  to  question  the  fairness  of  the  action 
of  an  outsider  that  seemed  to  work  injustice  to  his  group, 
or  to  one  of  them.  If  supplies  are  short,  he  goes  and  learns 
why,  and  remedies  it  if  possible.  He  sends  an  ailing  man 
to  the  doctorand  follows  up  the  case  with  interest,  as  would 
a  foot-ball  captain  follow  up  the  treatment  of  a  member 
of  his  team  during  the  season.  In  short,  he  does  every- 
thing at  all  times  to  make  them  feel  that  he  is  looking  out 
for  their  interests,  not  his  own  selfish  comfort.  It  is  inci- 
dently  true  that  when  hardships  come  he  will  be  more 
than  repaid  by  their  devotion  to  him  and  care  for  his 
comfort. 

As  a  thorough  example  of  a  great  cavalry  leader's 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  considering  the  human  element 
in  dealing  with- soldiers,  and  as  an  interesting  illustration 
for  you  of  the  seeming  trifles  to  which  a  successful  leader 
gives  his  personal  attention,  the  following  is  quoted  from 
General  de  Brack's  instructions  to  his  officers : 

"  The  Pipe. — Every  trooper  should  be  encouraged  to 
smoke  a  pipe.     Why?    Because  it  will  keep  him  awake. 


82  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

The  pipe  is  a  means  of  diversion  which,  far  from  inter- 
fering with  the  trooper's  performing  his  duty,  attaches 
him  to  it  and  renders  it  less  burdensome.  It  soothes  him, 
kills  time,  banishes  unpleasant  thoughts,  and  keeps  the 
trooper  in  bivouac  and  near  his  horse.  While  the  trooper, 
seated  upon  a  pile  of  hay  or  grass,  smokes  his  pipe,  no  one 
will  venture  to  steal  the  forage  from  his  horse  to  give  it 
to  another ;  he  is  certain  that  his  horse  is  eating  his  food, 
and  that  he  is  not  getting  kicked ;  the  provisions  are  not 
stolen  from  his  wallet ;  he  has  time  to  discover  the  repairs 
which  should  be  made  to  his  saddlery,  clothing,  etc. 

"  On  outpost,  all  sleep  is  forbidden.  What  a  comfort 
you  will  then  find  the  pipe,  which  drives  away  drowsiness, 
speeds  the  weary  hours,  renders  the  rain  less  chilly,  and 
makes  hunger  and  thirst  more  easy  to  endure.  If  you 
have  to  make  long  night  marches  after  the  fatigues  of  the 
day,  when  sleep  overpowering  you  is  a  veritable  torture, 
and  cause  of  numerous  injuries  to  the  horse,  nothing  will 
keep  you  awake  like  smoking  your  pipe. 

"  In  a  campaign,  where  men's  resources  are  so  limited, 
there  is  nothing  so  trifling  as  to  be  devoid  of  value.  The 
pipe  is  a  medium  of  exchange,  of  pleasure,  and  of  duty  in 
the  fraternal  associations  of  our  military  life ;  in  certain 
cases,  when  loaned,  it  becomes  a  veritable  means  of 
relieving  distress. 

"  Therefore,  whatever  Aristotle  and  his  learned  cabal 
may  say,  smoke,  and  make  your  troopers  smoke." 

15.  Do  not  delude  yourself  that  you  are  all  right  be- 
cause the  men  recognize  your  constituted  authority  in 
peace  time  training  and  good  naturedly  obey  your  com- 
mands. The  corporal's  plaintive  "  Follow  me,"  heard  so 
often  on  the  drill  field,  will  be  lost  in  battle.  Those  inspir- 
ing words  must  then  boom  out  in  no  uncertain  tone,  and 
carry  conviction.  When  the  stress  comes,  the  best  men 
will  be  at  the  fore,  and  unless  you  have  trained  yourself 
and  are  of  the  best,  you  will  find,  to  your  own  great  humil- 
iation, the  men  looking  to  some  other  man  for  leadership. 


LEADERSHIP  23 

How  much  better  that  this  other,  who  had  the  real  stuff, 
should  have  had  charge  of  the  training.  I  have  seen  a 
sergeant,  when  the  test  came,  actually  fade  into  the  ranks  ; 
while  a  private,  who  had  it  in  him,  naturally  took  the  lead- 
ership of  the  squad  through  the  emergency.  It  is  not  to 
quit  when  this  is  true,  but  to  get  down  to  bed  rock  and 
train  yourself  to  lead.  Acquire  superior  knowledge,  and 
the  power  to  command.  You  can  do  it  if  you  care  enough. 
Next  to  a  coward,  the  most  dangerous  man  to  attempt  lead- 
ership is  one  who  is  ignorant  or  lazy,  or  both.  If  you  are 
not  prepared  to  learn  to  lead,  retire  and  let  another  have 
the  chance.  If  you  will  stop  to  realize  what  your  failure 
on  the  battlefield  might  mean  of  disaster  and  even  disgrace, 
and  not  alone  to  your  organization  but  perhaps  through  it 
to  the  whole  cause — you  will  decide  now  either  to  take 
yourself  seriously  in  hand  to  learn  the  game,  or  else  to 
move  down  and  let  another  try. 

1 6.  How  important  is  your  ability  to  give  orders  prop- 
erly. I  have  had  to  reduce  many  noncommissioned  officers 
because  they  were  reporting  this  man  and  that  for  disobe- 
dience of  orders.  They  were  unfitted  to  give  orders.  Diso- 
bedience is  almost  always  the  fault  primarily,  either  of  the 
order  or  of  the  way  in  which  it  is  given.  It  is  a  safe  rule 
that  your  men  originally  intend  to  do  right.  Assume  that 
first.  Then  be  sure  that  your  order  is  right  and  that  it  is 
something  that  should  be  done.  It  is  demoralizing  to  dis- 
cipline to  give  an  order,  and  then  have  to  change  it.  And 
above  all  be  sure  there  is  no  suspicion  of  a  question  in  your 
own  breast  but  that  the  order  will  be  obeyed.  So  often  a 
man  has  disobeyed  because  you  have  shown  by  voice  or 
manner  that  you  were  not  sure  he  would  obey.  You  were 
not  sure  of  yourself  or  of  your  authority.  You  simply 
invited  disobedience. 

There  are  circumstances  in  which  it  is  often  possible, 
and  even  advisable,  to  add  the  reason  for  an  order  given, 
thus  enlisting  the  man's  intelligent  interest  in  its  execution. 
But  in  doing  this,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  any  ap- 
pearance of  apologizing  for  giving  the  order,  and  to  avoid 


24  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

the  possibility  of  creating  a  habit  that  might  lead  the 
soldier  to  stop  and  ask  why  on  the  battlefield. 

Give  your  orders  in  a  quiet,  decent  tone — just  as  a  base 
ball  captain  would  tell  a  player  to  cover  second  base. 
There  is  no  question  of  insult,  nor  of  disobedience,  nor  of 
argument.  Your  tone  has  not  made  his  manhood  rebel, 
tempting  him  to  tell  you  to  go  to  the  devil.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  team,  helping  toward  ultimate  success  by  obey- 
ing you  as  a  leader.  That  is  the  attitude  for  both  you  and 
him. 

But  too  often  there  are  those  placed  in  authority  who 
so  far  miss  the  true  situation  as  to  treat  their  subordinates 
somewhat  as  though  they  were  dogs.  By  word,  tone  or 
manner,  they  wantonly  insult  their  manliness  and  thus 
sacrifice  loyalty  and  cheerful  subordination.  Let  them 
remember  that  military  courtesy  goes  as  much  from  the 
superior  to  the  inferior  as  from  the  inferior  to  the  superior. 
You  want  to  command  a  team  of  men,  not  of  dogs.  And 
you  will  never  get  discipline  from  men  by  outraging  their 
manliness. 

To  bring  this  home — I  have  actually  been  in  camp  with 
two  diflferent  troops  of  militia  cavalry  in  which  the  non- 
commissioned officers  were  constantly  heard  cursing  the 
men,  shouting  profanity  and  vulgarity  in  a  vain  effort  to 
exercise  authority.  A  pathetic  spectacle.  They  could 
not  command  the  respect  of  the  meanest  man  in  the  organi- 
zation. Open  disregard  of  their  orders  was  a  common 
occurrence,  and  to  be  expected.  And  what  of  the  troop 
commander  who  allowed  any  human  being  to  curse  one  of 
his  men  without  himself  jumping  in  and  resenting  it !  The 
whole  situation  showed  an  absolute  lack  of  appreciation  of 
the  true  spirit  of  discipline  and  leadership.  These  men 
meant  right,  but  had  somewhere  picked  up  that  silly  tradi- 
tion of  the  brutality  of  army  discipline,  and  were  flounder- 
ing along,  outraging  every  sense  of  decency  and  loyalty, 
hopeless  of  ever  attaining  organized  efficiency.  In  each 
troop  there  is  just  one  individual  who  may  do  any  curs- 
ing—the "  Old  Man."    He  will  do  it  for  all ;  and  if  he 


LEADERSHIP  25 

wants  it  to  be  "  his  troop,"  he  will  not  only  exercise  this 
prerogative  judiciously,  but  will  be  extremely  jealous 
that  none  other  ever  infringe  upon  this  privilege  ever  so 
silghtly. 

He  who  can  make  his  men  jump  with  a  low  firm  tone  of 
voice  has  an  enviable  force  of  character.  The  man  who 
has  to  raise  his  voice,  scream  and  roar  and  curse  in  order 
to  get  action  is  pathetic.  He  will  be  an  even  sorrier  figure 
when  trying  to  lead  in  an  emergency.  He  has  probably 
missed  the  first  essential,  self-control,  and  is  too  likely  con- 
scious of  his  own  inherent  weakness  or  inability. 

Avoid  giving  too  many  orders,  or  indefinite  half- 
hearted orders.  Your  order  must  be  so  expressed  as  to 
leave  no  question  whatever  as  to  you~  intentions.  And 
above  all  take  time  and  care  to  see  that  every  order  you 
give  is  carried  out  to  the  letter.  It  is  so  easy,  especially  in 
the  beginning  of  your  career  as  a  leader,  for  you  to  over- 
look the  slight  deviations  and  omissions.  The  men  may  be 
trying  you  out.  If  you  overlook  slight  omissions  they  will 
grow  until  some  man  is  found  in  a  serious  disobedience  of 
orders.  And  it  will  be  all  your  fault.  If  you  wish  to  go 
slowly  at  first  in  enforcing  your  orders  inflexibly,  go  slowly 
in  giving  them,  not  in  demanding  execution.  Wilful  dis- 
obedience of  orders  is  one  of  the  gravest  military  offenses, 
a  violation  of  the  man's  oath  at  enlistment,  a  slur  on  the 
ability  of  the  troop  leadership,  and  a  blot  on  the  esprit  of 
the  organization.  Do  not  let  it  be  true  that  you  led  to  this 
through  your  shiftless  squad  leadership,  whether  due  to 
your  laziness,  ignorance  or  moral  weakness. 

17.  It  may  happen,  though  rarely,  that  a  combination  of 
circumstances  has  goaded  a  man  into  positive  insubordina- 
tion on  some  certain  point.  Considered  psychologically  he 
has  concentrated  his  faculties  to  oppose  some  order — forc- 
ing them  from  the  normal  easier  channels  of  obedience,  he 
is  holding  them  directed  solely  on  breaking  out  this  new 
channel  of  disobedience.  It  will  be  exactly  wrong  to  op- 
pose him  directly  on  this  one  point,  for  that  will  assist  in 
keeping  his  faculties  concentrated  in  opposition,  and  will 


26  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

but  increase  the  evil.  H  such  a  case  must  be  dealt  with 
at  once,  you  will  do  well  first  to  divert  his  faculties  by 
quietly  requiring  of  him  some  simple  thing,  like  adjusting 
his  uniform,  or  correcting  his  position,  in  which  he  will 
obey  through  force  of  habit.  And  thus  through  easy 
stages  you  may  regain  control  and  save  the  situation.  This 
is  illustrated  by  a  principle  in  horse  training.  Often  where 
you  persist  in  attempting  some  one  movement  the  horse  be- 
comes stubborn  and  refuses  to  move  at  all.  It  then  be- 
comes necessary  to  change  absolutely  to  some  simple  thing, 
that  you  are  sure  he  will  do  at  your  command — perhaps  to 
walk,  halt,  and  walk  again.  Thus  you  re-establish  control, 
and  then  through  steps  that  he  will  perform,  return  to  the 
first  test  of  obedience. 

If  in  any  particular  case  the  above  methods  have  failed, 
there  still  remain  the  sterner  methods  of  the  regular  ser- 
vice. Your  authority  must  be  respected.  It  is  backed  by 
the  entire  military  force  of  the  nation. 

18.  "  Actions  speak  louder  than  words."  A  military 
leader  does  not  preach.  There  will  be  rare  times  when 
you  will  have  to  tell  your  men  in  detail  what  you  want. 
Generally  it  will  be  by  brief  expressions,  by  holding  to  a 
standard  of  performance,  by  your  own  invariable  conduct 
and  your  example,  that  you  will  attain  the  desired  results. 
You  do  not  keep  your  men  "  on  their  toes  "  by  telling  them 
that  you  want  them  there,  but  rather  by  making  the  work 
so  interesting,  by  putting  so  much  snap  and  vitality  and 
intelligent  direction  into  it  yourself,  you  bring  them  and 
hold  them  there  unconsciously.  Then  after  the  drill  is 
over  they  do  the  talking  about  how  snappy  it  was,  and 
you  get  the  credit. 

Whenever  you  do  address  remarks  to  a  group  of  men, 
first  see  to  it  that  all  of  them  are  giving  you  attention.  It 
is  ridiculous  for  you  to  be  talking  to  them,  and  they  wan- 
dering about,  interested  in  their  own  affairs  or  conversa- 
tion. Always  call  them  to  attention  first,  and  see  that 
they  have  all  obeyed  it;    then  you  may  talk,  and  may 


LEADERSHIP  27 

properly  hold  them  responsible  for  having  heard  what 
you  said.  They  may  be  "  at  ease,"  but  they  must  be  at- 
tentive. If  the  men  be  in  ranks  at  attention,  direct  them 
"look  to  me,"  as  eyes  to  the  front  is  part  of  their  military 
position,  and  generally  you  want  their  eyes  on  you  if  your 
remarks  are  of  any  moment. 

19.  The  leader  is  held  responsible  for  the  appearance, 
conduct,  and  performance  of  duty  of  his  men.  He  accom- 
plishes this  first  by  being  an  example;  in  neatness  of 
dress,  care  of  arms  and  equipment,  punctuality  at  forma- 
tions, cheerfulness  in  performance  of  all  duties,  unvarying 
observance  of  regulations,  military  courtesy,  etc.  And 
then  he  must  follow  up  the  delinquents,  to  see  that  they 
also  conform.  If  wise  he  will  do  this  by  arousing  the 
men's  interest  in  keeping  up — in  any  case  he  must  so  do  it 
as  to  avoid  nagging.  In  insisting  upon  an  exact  ob- 
servance of  regulations  in  all  small  matters,  dress,  police, 
stable  duty,  etc.,  he  is  requiring  his  men  to  form  habits 
of  obedience  that  will  make  discipline  easy  and  be  of  great 
value  later  in  the  service.  Why  not  explain  this  to  the 
men  ?     It  will  add  to  their  interest  in  all  their  work. 

20.  You  expect  loyalty,  so  show  it  yourself  tO'  your  su- 
periors. If  you  receive  an  order  for  your  command  to 
perform  a  disagreeable  duty,  go  to  its  execution  loyally; 
do  not  try  to  purchase  cheap  popularity  with  your  men  by 
saying  that  "  so  and  so  has  ordered  this  and  we've  got  to 
do  it."  This  is  too  cheap,  and  your  men  will  know  that 
you  are  not  playing  your  part  in  the  team  work.  Nor  may 
you  even  listen  quietly  while  your  men  curse  the  order. 
Remember  that  your  team  is  part  of  the  next  higher  or- 
ganization and  that  you  are  working  to  make  that  the 
best  in  the  service,  to  make  your  men  proud  to  belong  to 
it  and  proud  of  its  leader.  Seek  to  leam  the  spirit  of  an 
order,  then  execute  it  loyally.  That  is  the  example  you 
want  to  give,  and  the  service  you  owe  your  superiors. 
Do  not  be  so  petty  as  to  spend  time  criticizing  the  form 
or  wording  of  an  order,  or  so  unmindful  of  your  part  as 
a  soldier. 


28  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

21.  It  seems  as  though  every  organization  has  to  have 
at  least  one  noncommissioned  officer  that  is  always  "  agin 
the  government."  His  mentality  and  force  have  made 
him  a  leader,  but  he  has  the  curse  of  pessimism,  and  his 
lifting  force  in  any  proposition  toward  progress  has  gen- 
erally a  negative  sign  before  it.  If  you  are  this  unhappy 
individual,  lay  violent  hands  on  your  temperament,  and 
the  next  time  enthusiasm  begins  to  stir  a  conference,  curb 
your  impulse  to  kick,  and  see  how  it  feels  to  get  behind 
and  push.  One  of  the  essential  qualities  of  a  good  soldier 
is  cheerfulness.  That  squad  is  indeed  unfortunate  which 
does  not  count  among  its  members  at  least  one  indomitable 
soul  (generally  Irish)  to  jolly  it  through  the  endurance 
of  hardships.  This  quality  may  be  cultivated  in  the 
"  squad  spirit,"  and  should  be.  Some  swinging  song, 
peculiar  to  your  outfit,  will  bring  it  happily  into  camp, 
when  others  are  barely  dragging  along  the  dusty  road. 
In  any  event,  growling  at  hardships  is  only  demoralizing 
to  esprit,  and  weakening  to  the  powers  of  endurance.  It 
must  not  be  tolerated.  Ability  to  endure  hardship  must 
characterize  a  successful  army,  and  it  is  claimed  that 
modem  Americans  lack  it. 

22.  In  performing  work  assigned  your  command  you 
must  not  actually  work  with  your  hands,  any  more  than  an 
officer  would  enter  the  firing  line  with  a  rifle  in  battle,  not 
because  it  is  beneath  your  dignity,  but  because  you  are  in 
charge  and  must  give  your  attention  to  control  and  direc- 
tion, and  to  the  observation  of  your  men  in  the  work. 
How  often  we  see  an  inexperienced  noncommissioned 
officer  in  the  ditch  with  the  shovel,  while  a  wise  private 
smokes  at  ease  on  the  bank.  There  is  no  one  thing  more 
conductive  to  dissatisfaction  than  for  the  leader  to  allow 
certain  smooth  "  dead-beats  "  continually  to  put  it  over  on 
the  others  who  must  do  their  share  of  the  work.  No,  you 
had  better  be  in  observation,  and  using  your  faculties  to 
see  that  the  "  smooth  ones  "  get  their  full  share.  This 
will  add  to  esprit.  Where  the  task  is  unfamiliar  or  diffi- 
cult, conditions  might  easily  arise  in  which  you  would  do 


LEADERSHIP  29 

best  to  jump  in  and  set  the  pace  for  a  minute.  But  you 
are  not  to  put  yourself  in  as  an  equal  in  sharing  the  work. 
How  easy  always  to  call  upon  the  willing  ones  for  the 
task.  Smith  is  full  of  good  spirits,  a  willing  worker.  So 
a  careless  squad  leader,  or  one  lacking  confidence  in  his 
own  authority  over  his  men,  will  always  send  Smith  to  do 
this  and  that.  Instead  of  always  putting  the  work  on  the 
cheerful  ones,  on  the  capable  ones,  thus  putting  a  premium 
on  worthlessness  and  sullenness,  a  good  leader  will  see 
that  the  lazy  and  sullen  get  their  full  share  of  the  hard 
work. 

23.  If  you  could  only  appreciate  the  value  of  arousing 
the  men's  interest  in  the  work  at  hand.  Imagine  a  detail  of 
recruits  digging  their  first  kitchen  incinerator.  They  may 
be  shovelling  dirt  to  kill  time  for  all  they  know.  But  first 
let  the  corporal  tell  them  what  they  are  going  to  make, 
what  an  incinerator  is  and  what  it  is  for,  and  that  each 
troop  kitchen  has  to  have  one.  He  may  thus  arouse  their 
interest  in  it,  and  their  pride  in  making  theirs  the  best  in 
camp — and  now  see  them  work.  So,  with  each  task,  the 
men  should  know  at  kast  what  they  are  about  and  why 
it  is  necessary ;  and  so  be  allowed  to  participate  with  you 
in  the  pleasure  and  credit  of  doing  it  well. 

24.  Most  tasks  require  especial  forethought  and  plan- 
ning on  the  part  of  the  leader.  You  have  got  to  sit  down 
and  study  it  ahead  of  time,  foresee  every  detail,  and  plan  to 
meet  it  with  system  and  the  least  friction  and  lost  motion 
for  the  men.  Then  only  will  you  be  able  to  conduct  the 
work  as  a  real  leader  should.  Failure  in  this  is  far  too 
common.  You  see  regular  officers  conducting  some  work, 
detraining  a  command,  breaking  a  camp,  what  you  will, 
everything  working  smoothly,  and  seem  to  think  that  the 
officer  does  this  by  inspiration.  In  reality,  if  he  does  it 
smoothly,  it  is  only  because  he  has  anticipated  each  step 
and  planned  ahead  for  it. 

Do  not  assume  that  in  putting  on  your  uniform  you 
have  clothed  yourself  with  any  peculiar  omniscience  that 
will  enable  you  to  guess  right  as  the  situations  arise.     The 


so  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

best  trained  lawyer  would  not  appear  in  court  without 
specially  preparing  himself  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the 
case  in  hand.  It  is  equally  necessary  for  you  to  plan  ahead 
your  line  of  action ;  and  those  who  appear  such  successful 
leaders  have  thus  prepared  themselves.  If  a  foreman  on 
a  job  employed  his  men  without  intelligent  direction,  in 
the  shiftless  time-killing  way  most  noncommissioned  of- 
ficers go  about  a  piece  of  work,  he  would  be  properly  fired 
by  the  superintendent.  The  men  themselves  would  be 
disgusted  with  him.  When  you  are  detailed  to  do  a  piece 
of  work,  size  up  the  situation  and  plan  it  so  that  when 
the  men  are  at  it  they  will  work  with  the  highest  degree 
of  efficiency.  Do  not  have  men  standing  about  idle.  Get 
the  work  done  and  let  the  men  go.  If  you  have  eight  men 
to  do  two  men's  work,  divide  it  into  four  reliefs,  and  make 
each  two  hum  while  their  shift  is  on.  Anticipate  what 
tools  you  will  need,  get  everything  in  hand,  allot  the  work 
to  the  men,  and  then  go  to  it.  They  will  like  it  any  amount 
better  than  dragging  around  for  twice  the  length  of  time. 

25.  In  the  Regular  Service  certain  rules  are  always  ob- 
served governing  the  relations  and  intercourse  of  military 
men.  Long  experience  has  proven  them  most  conductive 
to  discipline.  They  are  the  growth  of  centuries  of  ex- 
perience, and  are  much  the  same  in  all  the  armies  of  the 
world.  They  forbid  familiarity  between  the  noncommis- 
sioned officer  and  his  men,  or  between  officers  and  enlisted 
men.  They  prescribe  the  military  salute,  the  military 
forms  of  address,  the  position  of  attention,  etc. — all  are 
visible  signs  of  discipline  and  characterize  the  organization 
that  has  a  fine  esprit. 

26.  A  soldier's  career  may  depend  largely  on  how  he  is 
started  in  the  service.  The  noncommissioned  officer  must 
consider  this  in  dealing  Avith  recruits.  They  have  no  clear 
conception  of  what  it  is  all  about,  you  must  explain  the 
why  of  many  things,  and  arouse  an  intelligent  interest  in 
the  drill  and  all  forms  of  work.  Recall  how  stupid  and 
unreasonable  much  of  it  seemed  to  you  in  your  early 
experience.     The  recruit  soon  learns  to  look  to  you  for 


LEADERSHIP  31 

instruction  and  advice.  Keep  that  relation  in  use.  Later 
you  may  have  opportunity  to  advise  him  about  his  con- 
duct, and  thus  keep  him  out  of  some  trouble  into  which 
his  own  thoughtlessness  or  shiftlessness  or  even  vicious- 
ness  might  lead  him.  Men  are  going  to  have  grievances. 
Encourage  them  to  come  to  their  corporal  freely  with  their 
troubles,  and  let  him  use  his  tact  in  settling  these  matters 
for  the  best  good  of  the  troop  spirit. 

And  how  important  that  you  seize  the  recruit  and,  from 
the  first  step,  exact  the  most  rigid  accuracy  and  ob- 
servance of  military  regulations.  He  will  then  commence 
forming  habits  of  exact  obedience.  He  will  be  military 
and  glory  in  it.  That  is  what  civilians  enlist  for.  They 
admire  the  military ;  and  in  their  eyes  you  are  a  wonder 
of  perfection  and  precision.  How  disastrous  then  if  you 
appear  before  them  uncertain  or  indifferent.  You  first 
disappoint  them,  and  soon  deaden  or  disgust  their  keen 
appreciation  and  ambition.  You  inculcate  habits  of  in- 
difference rather  than  of  smartness.  Think  of  that,  you 
leaders,  and  do  not  disappoint  your  men  by  being  easy- 
going, indifferent  soldiers.  Be  military  to  a  degree,  and 
make  them  the  same.  They  will  admire  you  for  it,  and 
your  captain  bless  you. 

27.  You  must  have  imagination,  or  acquire  it.  In 
peace-time  training,  the  cold  prosaic  matter-of-fact  brain 
makes  a  poor  leader  in  a  battle  exercise.  Imagination  and 
spirit  must  make  you  see  the  enemy  when  there  is  no  ene- 
my, feel  his  coming  through  those  distant  woods,  see  him 
break  into  the  open,  see  his  column  form  for  attack  as  you 
launch  yours,  see  his  platoons  maneuver  to  meet  yours,  dis- 
perse in  the  clash  of  the  charge  and  rally  to  charge  again. 
You  ipust  not  only  be  able  to  see  this  yourself,  but  have 
the  power  of  expression  to  make  your  men  see  and  feel  it. 

And  in  war,  you  must  have  imagination,  to  enable  you 
to  anticipate  the  moves  of  the  enemy.  As  you  march  you 
will  constantly  consider  the  situation  from  his  point  of 
view,  foresee  how  he  may  use  the  terrain  to  meet  you  com- 
ing as  you  are,  and  prepare  to  act  quickly  to  meet  him. 


82  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

Then  surprise  will  not  benumb  you.     In  fact  you  are 
anticipating  him  and  there  is  no  surprise. 

28.  Competition  and  rivalry  are  good  among  equals. 
They  are  an  application  of  the  principle  that  men  take 
pleasure  in  excelling,  and  in  having  their  excellence  recog- 
nized. You  will  use  this  in  building  up  esprit  in  your 
squads,  your  platoons,  and  your  troops. 

But  it  is  a  narrow-minded  policy  to  arouse  esprit  in 
your  arm  of  the  service  at  the  expense  of  other  arms,  by 
invidious  comparison  or  by  holding  them  up  to  scorn  or 
ridicule.  He  who  does  this  has  missed  the  vital  spirit  of 
ttam  work  so  essential  to  the  success  of  the  army.  He  has 
failed  to  appreciate  the  interdependence  of  the  Arms,  and 
how  each  must  have  confidence  in  the  other  and  give  it 
loyal  encouragement  and  support  in  the  time  of  battle. 
He  is  ignorant  of  the  *'  Brotherhood  of  Arms,"  and  not 
only  is  he  thus  showing  himself  unworthy  of  leadership 
therein,  but  he  is  lending  his  influence  toward  weakening 
that  so  important  bond. 

29.  The  proudest  characteristic  of  the  service  and  that 
one  most  jealously  guarded,  is  the  nicety  of  its  Honor. 
The  plain  statement  of  an  officer,  "  I  do  so  and  so,"  is  as 
good  as  his  "  I  certify  on  honor."  Practices  that  might  be 
accepted  in  civil  life  would  be  intolerable  in  this  knightly 
brotherhood.  An  officer  is  a  gentleman,  and  if  he  fails 
of  that  standard,  the  law  knows  but  the  one  sentence  of 
dismissal.  Measure  yourself  by  this  standard,  and  your 
relations  with  your  fellows,  and  with  the  men  under  you, 
cannot  go  far  wrong. 

30.  In  the  regular  service,  discipline  is  attained  by  con- 
tinuous hammering,  twenty- four  hours  a  day,  seven  days  a 
week.  With  you  opportunities  for  training  are  rare,  a 
few  hours  each  week,  perhaps  a  few  weeks  together  in  the 
field  once  a  year.  How  unreasonable,  therefore,  to  expect 
to  attain  the  desired  result  from  an  application  of  the  same 
methods  in  the  two  services. 

In  fact  the  means  for  developing  discipline  must 
always  be  suited  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  at  hand. 


LEADERSHIP  SS 

No  set  rules  can  be  followed.  Each  case  is  a  study  for 
each  leader,  largely  determined  by  the  human  equation,  the 
leader's,  as  well  as  his  men's.  "  A  knowledge  of  human 
nature  is  half  of  the  art  of  war."  But  in  general  you  are 
dealing  with  intelligence,  patriotism,  pride  in  the  organi- 
zation and  love  for  the  service.  Use  these  advantages 
fully;  explain  the  absolute  necessity  of  discipline,  for 
efficiency  and  even  for  self-preservation,  appeal  to  the 
esprit  of  the  organization,  and  to  the  individual's  pride  in 
being  well  disciplined,  and  then  help  to  establish  it  by  con- 
stant practice.  Remember  you  are  dealing  with  citizens 
who  want  to  be  good  soldiers,  with  men  of  intelligence  and 
civil  standing  perhaps  equal  to  yours,  men  who  welcome 
efficiency,  and  will  eagerly  accept  your  precepts  so  long  as 
you  are  good  enough  yourself  to  make  it  appear  that  your 
precepts  are  good  medicine. 

Success  will  depend  even  then  largely  upon  the  degree 
to  which  you  and  your  men  are  willing  to  train  yourselves 
in  self-dicipline  during  the  long  periods  when  out  of  active 
training.  These  bodies  of  yours  are  going  to  rebel  strenu- 
ously when  hardships  and  hunger  bear  hard  in  campaign, 
they  are  going  to  command  a  halt  for  rest  at  the  crucial 
moment  when  victory  lies  just  beyond  the  seeming  limit 
of  your  endurance.  Well  for  you  in  that  time  if  you  have 
taught  the  physical  man  that  he  must  obey  the  moral. 
What  millions  of  lives  have  been  lost  in  war,  because  the 
winners  of  certain  battles  did  not  have  the  stamina  to 
carry  the  victory  on  through  to  a  crushing  defeat  that 
would  have  closed  the  campaign.  The  seeming  brutality 
that  drives  exhausted  men  forward  after  victory,  is  in 
reality  as  merciful,  as  it  is  rare.  If  you  are  willing  to  train 
to  meet  this  successfully,  try  self-discipline  in  the  matter 
of  over-indulgence,  especially  in  eating.  Leap  out  of  bed 
each  morning,  into  ten  minutes  strenuous  exercise.  Each 
man  may  find  means  enough  for  self-training;  and  he  will 
be  a  better  man,  and  citizen,  and  soldier,  in  the  degree  in 
which  he  practices  them. 

31.  Do  you  ever  think  what  we  mean  by  military  qaiTr- 
3 


84  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

riage?  Why  we  insist  that  when  the  soldier  comes  up  and 
addresses  an  officer  he  shall  stand  with  head  erect,  shoul- 
ders back  and  chest  expanded,  stand  squarely  on  both  feet, 
the  proud  figure  of  a  man  looking  his  officer  squarely  in 
the  eye.  It  is  because  we  want  him  to  feel  proud,  and 
show  his  pride.  He  is  a  fellow  member  in  the  honorable 
profession  of  arms.  By  his  voluntary  enlistment  he  has 
taken  a  position  before  his  fellow  citizens  that  entitles  him 
to  their  respect.  He  has  in  effect  announced  that  he  is 
man  enough  to  meet  sacrifice  and  hardship  and  even 
death;  yes,  to  meet  a  thousand  deaths  on  the  battlefield, 
and  still  go  on.  That  puts  him  in  a  class  by  himself.  And 
these  are  proud  words  for  any  man  to  feel,  "  I  am  a  sol- 
dier." Get  this  spirit  into  you,  and  you  will  understand 
why  it  hurts  to  see  a  man  standing  about  in  uniform,  indif- 
ferent to  appearance,  unmilitary,  unclean,  altogether  out 
of  place  in  this  assembly  of  superior  men  training  them- 
selves to  be  fit  soldiers  in  time  of  need. 

And  to  be  a  good  soldier  means  to  be  a  better  citizen. 
We  proudly  trace  the  traditions  of  our  service  directly 
back  to  the  Order  of  Knighthood,  which  for  centuries 
furnished  the  brain  and  spirit  and  sinew  to  European 
armies,  and  indelibly  stamped  its  impress  upon  our  pro- 
fession. The  governing  principles  of  this  order,  formed 
to  succor  the  weak  and  to  maintain  the  right  amidst  the 
horrors  of  the  Dark  Ages,  were  abhorrence  of  cowardice 
and  deceit,  humbleness  in  victory,  stoicism  in  hardship, 
patience  in  defeat,  and  gentleness  in  the  exercise  of 
strength.  It  set  the  high  standard  of  "  a  gentleman  and  a 
soldier,"  and  its  civic  virtues  actually  made  our  present 
civilization  possible. 

The  true  soldier  stands  for  that  to-day — and  his  com- 
munity is  better  for  his  living  in  it.  His  duty  does  not 
cease  when  he  leaves  the  quarters.  In  the  presence  of 
crime  against  the  commonwealth,  of  public  danger  or  dis- 
aster, in  any  crisis,  he  remembers  he  is  a  soldier,  and  is 
the  first  to  jump  to  the  fronts— discipline  and  training  have 


LEADERSHIP  35 

made  him  a  natural  leader,  a  high  sense  of  public  duty 
makes  him  a  worthy  one. 

This  has  been  the  proud  record  of  the  American  sol- 
diery— ever  at  the  fore  in  sustaining  the  public  weal,  never 
found  working  to  undo  it.  Not  alone  when  ordered  in 
time  of  riot,  but  always  in  time  of  great  civic  need  or 
disaster — in  the  San  Francisco  earthquake,  the  Mississippi 
floods,  the  tremendous  problems  in  Panama  and  our 
tropical  islands,  the  soldier  has  proudly  borne  the  brunt 
of  regulation  and  control. 

32.  Of  the  value  of  the  elements  that  go  to  make  up 
battle  efficiency — numbers,  arms,  training,  and  morale — 
Napoleon  says  that  75  per  cent  is  morale.  And  accord- 
ingly he  took  every  opportunity  to  develop  the  morale  of 
his  men.  Yet  in  our  service  how  few  officers  give  this  any 
particular  thought,  or  realize  its  tremendous  importance, 
and  close  association  with  discipline.  In  reality  this 
should  be  the  first  consideration  in  everything  they  do ; 
how  to  do  it  to  get  the  right  psychological  effect  upon  the 
discipline,  the  morale,  of  their  men.  In  directing  work, 
in  giving  commands  or  orders,  in  corrections  and  com- 
mendations, in  fact  in  all  the  matters  of  administration 
and  dealing  with  the  men,  think  what  the  effect  will  be, 
and  so  do  it  as  to  get  the  desired  effect  on  the  spirit  of  the 
whole.  If  you  stop  to  think,  it  is  remarkable  in  what  little 
matters  this  becomes  important.  There  is  one  right  way 
to  do  each  thing,  and  a  dozen  wrong  ones — and  you  will 
use  one  of  the  latter  unless  you  train  yourself  to  think  of 
its  effect.  It  is  so  easy  to  disgust  men  by  wasting  time 
and  energy,  by  fool  explanations  and  exhibitions  at  drill, 
by  always  being  the  last  to  bring  around,  and  in  a  thou- 
sand seeming  trifles,  all  of  which  point  to  your  being  just 
short  of  the  keen  leader  who  never  misses  anything  for 
the  advantage  of  his  organization.  And  each  of  these  in- 
stances, properly  handled,  would  have  added  one  cubit 
more  to  the  stature  of  your  just  claim  to  leadership,  to  the 
pride  of  your  outfit,  and  their  confidence  in  being  able  to 
accomplish  anything. 


36  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

By  morale  we  mean  the  instinctive  feeling  of  strength 
and  superiority;  that  which,  at  the  very  outset,  gives  a 
feeling  of  confidence,  an  assurance  of  victory  through  our 
own  unconquerable  ability.  It  springs  then  from  an  hon- 
est confidence.  How  will  you  get  it?  Like  discipline,  it 
must  be  the  study  for  each  leader.  But  fundamentally  it 
must  rest  on  your  having  done  such  thorough  tvork  as  will 
have  inspired  confidence  in  the  ability  of  the  leaders  and  in 
the  excellence  of  your  instruction,  so  you  will  honestly 
believe  yourselves  able  to  play  your  part  surely  when  the 
test  comes.  This  honest  belief  can  come  only  from  doing 
good  work.  You  cannot  talk  or  sing  it  into  yourselves.  It 
will  be  found  about  as  valuable  as  the  "  collar  "  on  your 
glass  of  beer,  if  it  springs  from  the  same  source.  There 
should  be  in  your  military  repertoire  at  least  a  few  things 
that  you  know  you  can  do  well,  for  it  is  in  doing  them  well 
that  the  feeling  properly  grows  that  you  are  good,  that 
your  training  is  good,  and  that  you  will  be  able  to  carry 
through  no  matter  what  comes. 

And  later,  in  time  of  panic,  when  disorganization  and 
flight  are  impending,  to  be  put  through  one  of  these  well- 
known  movements  will  help  steady  you  into  a  machine ; 
while  the  knowledge  that  you  are  capable  of  such  con- 
trolled action  will  have  tended  subconsciously  to  hold  off 
the  panicky  feelings. 

33.  Because  training  a  football  team  is  psychologi- 
cally so  like  that  of  a  military  squad,  and  because  in  dis- 
cussing football  we  are  dealing  with  situations  which  are 
well  known  and  therefore  perhaps  better  understood,  and 
because  the  following  remarks  of  our  old  coach  at  West 
Point  to  the  football  squad  at  the  beginning  of  the  season 
are  so  full  of  meat  equally  applicable  to  you,  I  quote  them 
here: 

"  You  must  begin  by  mastering  the  fundamental  plays 
of  the  game.  .  Merely  to  know  what  they  are  will  not 
answer  the  purp>ose  at  all ;  you  must  be  able  to  execute 
them  completely  and  accurately,  at  any  time,  and  under  any 
circumstances.     And  each  one  of  you  must  know  the  part 


THE  BATTLEFIELD  87 

to  be  done  by  each  of  the  other  members  of  the  team. 
This  is  the  very  foundation  of  team  work,  and  without 
team  work  your  efforts  will  not  be  successful.  It  is  up  to 
each  man  to  master  these  rudiments  at  the  start,  and  he 
must  be  honest  with  himself  about  it,  and  be  his  own 
severest  critic.  One  man  may  sipoil  the  work  of  the  whole 
team  by  pretending  he  knows,  when  he  does  not. 

"  Such  knowledge  and  ability  are  invaluable  in  both 
offensive  and  defensive  play;  and  the  team  which  has 
acquired  them  has  confidence  in  its  own  ability  to  win  on 
the  merits  by  making  each  play  go. 

"  The  best  plays  on  the  ofifense  are  often  the  simplest 
plays,  when  they  are  made  by  a  team  which  knows  it  can 
make  them  go.  A  team  which  cannot  make  simple  plays 
well,  can  never  do  anything  worth  while  with  intricate 
plays.  Many  a  championship  game  has  been  lost  because 
the  team  had  no  simple  play  by  which  it  knew  it  could 
make  a  yard.  The  best  defense  can  hardly  keep  a  team 
from  making  distance  when  it  knows  how  to  make  a  simple 
formation,  and  makes  the  play  go  with  a  spirit  bom  of  the 
knowledge  that  no  mistakes  will  be  made,  and  that  the 
same  play  has  always  made  ground  before.  You  can  get 
along  and  do  well  without  intricate  plays  or  brilliant  indi- 
vidual effort,  but  you  will  fail  if  you  do  not  know 
thoroughly  the  'A.  B.  C  of  the  game." 

The  Battlefield. — The  psychology  of  control  of  men 
on  the  battlefield  is  a  big  subject,  of  vital  importance  to 
leaders.  Enough  here  to  bring  to  your  attention  a  few 
salient  facts,  which  you  must  consider  in  training. 

Man,  an  individual,  is  largely  controlled  by  his  emo- 
tions— they  color  his  judgment  in  the  calmest  moments,  in 
excitement  he  is  likely  to  become  their  creature.  Men  in 
a  crowd  are  swayed  by  impulses  often  so  unreasonable 
as  to  seem  absurd  and  impossible  to  any  one  of  them 
standing  alone.  This  is  illustrated  time  and  again  by  the 
unreasoning,  often  ridiculous,  conduct  of  mobs. 

The  strongest  instinct  in  man,  handed  down  from 
primal  times,  is  self-preservation.     When  he  feels  that  life 

346620 


38  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

is  threatened,  fear  obtrudes.  If  this  fear  possesses  his  be- 
ing, his  faculties  are  paralyzed,  his  eye  distends  till  vision 
is  obscured,  breathing  is  spasmodic,  muscles  tremble  and 
physical  exhaustion  impends ;  he  neither  hears  nor  rea- 
sons. At  any  moment  he  may  blindly  abandon  all  previous 
standards  of  conduct,  and,  forgetful  of  honor  and  duty, 
regard  only  his  safety. 

In  a  command  of  soldiers  on  the  battlefield,  you  have 
a  crowd  subjected  to  the  strongest  emotions,  the  ideal  con- 
dition for  developing  a  mob.  They  are  beyond  belief 
sensitive  to  emotions.  Impulses  sweep  through  them  as 
easily  as  sound  waves  through  ether.  If  this  condition  be 
allowed  to  grow,  the  most  trivial  thing  may  start  a  panic 
that  will  sweep  all  before  it.  This  is  the  battle  nightmare 
of  experienced  generals,  especially  in  dealing  with  raw 
troops.  History  is  full  of  instances  where  whole  com- 
mands have  been  swept  away  in  panic  over  the  shadow 
of  nothing.  Here  is  the  time  for  cool  leadership,  for 
officers  who  feel  the  pulse  of  their  men,  who  know  their 
very  souls,  and  have  learned  how  to  steady  and  control 
men.  Themselves  appearing  nonchalant,  they  will  be  con- 
stantly watchful  to  prevent  the  strain  from  reaching  the 
breaking  point.  They  themselves,  by  suggesting  hopeful 
thoughts  as  to  the  conditions  of  the  battle,  by  one  means 
or  another,  will  be  the  author  of  the  impulses  that  sway 
the  men,  and  thus  by  the  aid  of  training  and  discipline, 
they  may  bring  them  through  the  crisis. 

Another  not  infrequent  battle  picture  is  the  individual, 
gone  mad.  His  faculties  are  benumbed.  You  have 
known  him  as  a  fine  type  of  man  and  soldier,  and  now 
behold  him  acting  like  an  idiot.  There  is  no  control  for 
him  but  through  the  habit  of  obedience,  the  result  of  long, 
rigid  training. 

With  these  true  pictures  clearly  in  mind,  you  may  now 
read  understandingly  the  real  history  of  our  past  wars; 
and  may  fit  yourself  not  to  go  into  battle  unprepared  to 
meet  similar  conditions,  surprised  to  find  your  easy  control 


COURAGE  AND  FEAR  39 

of  the  drillfield  gone  forever.  By  giving  thought,  by 
observation  and  self-training,  prepare  yourself  to  be  con- 
trolled and  resourceful  in  emergencies ;  take  advantage 
of  every  opportunity  that  offers  even  mild  excitement,  to 
study  the  conduct  of  men,  and  above  all,  how  it  may  be 
controlled.  Whenever  working  with  experienced  officers, 
study  their  manner  and  expressions  for  points  on  control. 
Think  how  you  would  handle  each  situation,  till  your  mind 
learns  to  respond  easily  to  the  call  of  emergency. 

Courage  and  Fear. — You  may  well  accept  the  cold 
fact  that  fear  is  going  to  be  the  predominant  emotion  upon 
going  into  battle.  Anticipate  this,  and  do  not  lend  to  its 
power  for  producing  paralysis  and  demoralization,  the 
potent  element  of  surprise.  Accept  the  fact,  and  plan  to 
meet  it  intelligently. 

The  courage  that  lets  a  man  freely  sacrifice  his  life 
for  the  cause,  is  a  rare  thing.  Therefore  the  world  re- 
sounds with  its  praises.  Little  is  said,  however,  of  the 
half  million  individuals,  officers  and  men,  who  deserted 
the  Northern  armies  during  the  Civil  War.  Incidentally, 
they  were  the  fathers  of  many  in  the  present  generation, 
and  their  sons  would  be  met  in  a  present  call  to  arms. 

But  courage  can  be  developed  to  a  degree ;  and  must 
be.  It  is  the  essential  moral  quality  for  a  soldier.  It  is 
possible  only  with  a  good  physique,  good  bodily  health, 
and  confidence  in  self,  in  comrades,  and  in  leaders.  This 
clearly  points  the  way  for  the  training  to  be  given ;  de- 
velopment of  physique,  till  the  man  is  "  hard  as  iron,'' 
proud  and  confident  of  his  power  to  endure  hardships; 
practice  in  the  use  of  arms  and  in  military  exercises,  till 
he  is  9,t  ease  and  sure  of  himself  in  any  situation ;  and  all 
the  time,  such  use  of  team  work  as  to  make  him  sure  of  his 
comrades  and  his  leader. 

This  will  help,  but  still  we  must  deal  with  fear.  It  was 
Marshall  Ney  who  said,  "  The  one  who  says  he  never  knew 
fear  is  a  compound  liar."  And  the  great  Turenne,  who 
said  to  himself  upon  entering  a  battle,  "  You  tremble, 


40  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  SERVICE 

body.     Well,  you  would  tremble  more  if  you  knew  where 
1  am  going  to  take  you." 

But  we  are  not  to  let  this  fear  betray  us.  Rather  shall 
we,  reading  with  honest  conviction  the  lessons  of  our  past 
weaknesses,  self-train  ourselves,  mentally,  morally,  and 
physically,  our  chifdren  in  our  homes,  our  youth  in  our 
schools,  our  manhood  in  the  pursuits  of  life,  to  a  high  ideal 
of  patriotism  and  intelligent  devotion  to  our  country, 
fitting  ourselves  to  give  efficient  service  to  the  nation. 


CHAPTER  III 

MILITARY  TRAINING 

Drill  is  to  be  the  one  big  thing  in  your  present  service. 
It  is  where  you  all  learn  "the  game,"  where  you  may  train 
yourselves  in  military  leadership.  In  peace  time  your 
service  will  consist  in  little  else;  if  called  to  train  quickly 
for  war,  drill  becomes  vital,  every  hour  precious,  time  and 
energies  must  be  skillfully  employed.  How  important  in 
either  event  that  you  learn  to  make  it  what  it  should  be, 
full  of  interest  and  practical  efficiency.  Drill  can  be  made 
so  keen  the  men  will  leave  it  mentally  exhilarated,  enthusi- 
astic, sure  they  have  made  a  big  stride  forward ;  or  it  can 
be,  and  too  often  is,  made  so  aimless  and  stupid,  as  to 
leave  the  men  bored,  disgusted,  and  with  little  hope  for  the 
future.  It  all  rests  with  the  instructor.  To  be  a  good 
drill  master  is  an  art  in  itself;  and  so  few  have  acquired 
it!  The  nation  can  supply  men,  who  is  to  supply  the 
necessary  thousands  of  leaders  and  instructors !  It  is  for 
you  now  to  train  yourselves  for  that  duty. 

The  first  necessity  is  a  live  appreciation  of  what  the 
drill  is  for,  what  you  are  trying  to  get  out  of  it.  Not 
knowing,  you  can  expect  to  get  but  little  that  is  good. 
Then,  too,  you  must  know  the  different  kinds  of  drill, 
each  for  its  own  specific  purpose,  and  learn  to  enter  them 
intelligently:  the  close  order  drill  of  precision,  for  dis- 
cipline ;  the  extended  order  formations,  for  learning  the 
mechanism  of  control  for  campaign  and  battle ;  the  battle 
exercises  and  maneuvers  in  simulated  real  conditions,  for 
practising  this  mechanism;  the  practical  training  in  the 
use  of  the  arms  and  equipment,  in  signalling,  entrenching, 
individual  cooking,  etc. ;  and,  in  the  mounted  services, 
the  fast  drills  of  excitement  and  dash,  to  arouse  the  esprit 
of  the  arm  and  prepare  them  for  the  quick  sure  control 
of  the  battlefield. 

It  is  the  Close  Order  Drill  that  is  the  most  abused. 

41 


42  MILITARY  TRAINING 

And  some  organizations  get  but  little  other.  Let  us  see 
what  this  drill  should  accomplish,  and  how  it  should  be 
done.  First,  both  you  and  your  men  must  have  a  clear 
idea  of  the  object  of  the  drill.  That  will  make  you  all 
interested  in  it,  and  in  making  it  good.  These  precise 
movements  of  the  manual  and  close  order  are  not  for  the 
purpose  of  learning  how  to  get  about  on  the  battlefield, 
they  will  hardly  be  used  there  at  all;  they  are  for  the 
object  of  training  your  minds  and  bodies  into  Habits  of 
precise  unhesitating  obedience  to  the  will  of  your  leader. 
That  is  the  object  of  this  drill — to  form  habits  of  obedi- 
ence. Then  when  the  stress  of  battle  comes,  and  men's 
faculties  are  paralyzed  by  the  unwonted,  roar  and  loss  of 
life  and  straining  fear,  they  may  still  be  controlled  because 
Habit  has  made  obedience  automatic  and  the  easiest  line 
of  action.  This  psychological  truth  is  fundamental  in  our 
military  training.  It  is  the  guiding  principle  for  all  drills 
of  precision,  which  are  but  schools  in  discipline. 

The  instructor  commands  "  Right  front  into  line,"  not 
because  he  wants  you  in  line  especially,  but  in  order  to 
exercise  you  in  an  exact  performance  of  that  particular 
movement,  to  habituate  you  to  move  exactly  as  he  has 
ordered  you  to.  How  absurd  then,  that  instead  of  cor- 
recting the  failures  in  executing  this,  and  then  repeating  it, 
trying  for  an  exact  performance,  he  should  complacently 
pass  on  to  another  movement.  And  yet  we  have  seen  in- 
structors conduct  a  whole  drill  on  this  basis,  the  men  grow- 
ing more  and  more  tired  and  bored  as  it  progressed.  How 
preferable  that  the  men  first  appreciate  the  object  of  and 
necessity  for  precision,  that  the  instructor  be  able  to  name 
the  individual  faults  that  have  prevented  it,  and  then  that 
all  concentrate  on  executing  one  movement  right  before 
attempting  another.  Such  a  drill  will  be  of  real  value  in 
the  training.  The  men  are  now  interested  in  making  each 
movement  perfect,  and  this  makes  it  imperative  that  the 
instructor  criticize  each  movement,  "  good,"  "  very  good," 
"  poor,"  and  if  so,  wherein  and  how  to  be  corrected. 


CLOSE  ORDER  DRILL  43 

The  instructor  who  does  not  know,  and  must  perforce 
conduct  an  indifferent  drill,  not  only  wastes  precious  time, 
but  is  doing  actual  damage,  for  he  is  inculcating  habits,  not 
of  exact  obedience,  but  of  indifferent  obedience.  He  had 
better  give  "  rest "  until  "  recall."  But  this  is  unneces- 
sary, for  he  may  easily  prepare  himself  thoroughly 
beforehand  on  a  selected  few  movements  and  interest  the 
squad  in  perfecting  those. 

To  conduct  this  drill  you  have  got  to  know  every 
detail  of  the  movement  yourself.  In  preparing  yourself 
for  it,  visualize  its  execution  and  see  what  individual  is 
responsible  for  the  correctness  of  execution  of  each  part, 
try  to  see  what  faults  are  likely  to  occur  and  how  to  cor- 
rect them.  You  can  do  this  for  two  or  three  movements 
— ^you  cannot  do  it  for  several.  But  in  a  short  time  you 
will  have  done  it  for  all,  and  will  find  yourself  a  capable 
drill  master. 

It  is  inconceivable  yet  true,  that  there  are  officers  who 
presume  to  conduct  a  drill,  and  yet  do  not  even  know  how 
the  movements  they  order  are  to  be  executed.  I  have 
actually  seen  troops  in  mounted  drill  executing  "  column 
right "  when  in  column  of  platoons,  each  platoon  trying 
to  execute  the  right  turn,  everybody  at  a  zvalk.  The  men 
knew  something  was  wrong;  and  by  first  one  and  then 
another  trotting  up  a  little  and  the  pivot  dragging  a  little, 
they  would  finally  get  into  line  again.  And  during  all  this 
not  one  word  of  correction  or  instruction  from  captain, 
chiefs  of  platoons  or  file  closers.  I  have  seen  this  more 
than  once  and  in  more  than  one  troop ;  and  tell  it  here  as 
so  forcible  an  illustration  of  the  utter  futility  of  that 
kind  of  drill  that  you  will  all  get  the  point. 

It, is  not  enough  to  know  the  commands  and  to  give 
them  correctly ;  to  make  their  execution  perfect  is  the 
real  thing.  The  very  essence  of  drill  requires  that  the 
instructor  shall  have  analyzed  each  movement  in  detail,  till 
he  knows  exactly  what  each  element  should  be  doing  at 
each  instant — then  and  then  only,  will  he  be  able  to  put 
his  finger  on  the  man  who  went  wrong  and  show  him 


44  MILITARY  TRAINING 

how  he  spoiled  the  precision  of  the  movement;  and  be 
able  also  to  make  such  corrections  as  will  result  in  perfect 
execution  after  sufficient  trials.  Remember  this  always — 
"  To  Drill  Resolves  Itself  into  the  Pozver  to  Observe  and 
Correct  Mistakes,  and  So  to  Correct  Them  as  to  Make  a 
Lasting  Impression." 

Do  not  think  for  a  minute  that  you  can  conduct  a  drill 
without  special  forethought  and  preparation  for  each  par- 
ticular drill.  The  most  experienced  drill  masters  will 
hardly  undertake  that — you  certainly  cannot  do  it.  Real- 
ize that  you  have  but  few  drills  at  your  disposal,  each  is 
precious.  Do  not  waste  one,  but  be  sure  that  each  one 
does  its  share  toward  attaining  the  desired  standard  of 
efficiency.  To  do  this  you  will  have  to  plan  the  appropri- 
ate work  for  each  drill,  and  then  fit  yourself  to  conduct  it 
smartly. 

Realize,  too,  that  your  men  have  put  themselves  and 
their  time  at  your  disposal  for  the  purpose  of  being  trained 
as  soldiers.  They  are  mostly  intelligent  men.  Do  not 
insult  their  intelligence  by  gomg  before  them  unprepared 
to  occupy  their  full  time  with  interesting  instructive  work. 
This  puts  it  right  up  to  you  ;  and  no  man  can  occupy  a  full 
drill  period  properly,  without  having  first  fitted  himself 
especially  for  it. 

So  often  we  see  the  instructor  unctuously  giving  his . 
men  "  rest  "  while  he  scratches  his  vacant  head  in  an 
effort  to  think  what  to  do  next.  If  you  could  watch  the 
faces  of  the  men  in  ranks !  Consider  an  instructor  who 
has  thought  out  his  work,  is  quick  and  sure  in  correcting 
the  exact  individual  mistake,  keeps  his  men  alert  and  keen, 
interested  and  on  the  jump.  His  men  are  sweating  blood, 
but  they  are  getting  what  they  came  for,  their  eyes  are 
bright,  and  after  the  drill  they  are  enthusiastic  about  their 
instructor  and  their  outfit,  and  ready  to  advise  friends  to 
join  it.  When  you  realize  that  in  all  dealings  with  your 
men,  and  especially  in  drill,  you  must  regard  the  moral 
effect,  you  can  see  what  such  a  drill  means  for  esprit  and 
morale. 


CLOSE  ORDER  DRILL  45 

Now  watch  the  men  under  the  instructor  who  is  un- 
prepared. He  gives  commands,  even  these  are  often 
incorrect.  He  shows  no  abihty  to  get  accurate  perform- 
ance— seems  incapable  of  it.  His  corrections,  if  he  makes 
any,  are  general  and  casual,  not  aimed  directly  and  un- 
erringly at  the  exact  mistake.  Drill  lags,  the  men  become 
bored.  They  are  wasting  their  time  and  they  know  it. 
They  leave  the  drill  disgusted;  if  they  advised  a  man  to 
join  the  outfit  it  would  be  because  they  had  it  in  for  him. 

You  will  see  a  company  at  drill,  the  men  of  one 
platoon  bright,  interested,  enjoying  the  keen  quick  control 
they  are  under;  the  men  of  the  other  platoon  tired,  bored, 
disgusted,  their  platoon  never  quite  right  and  they 
humiliated  by  the  fact ;  they  are  under  command  of  a 
"  dub,"  and  they  know  it.  This  is  put  strongly  because 
you  must  feel  it  strongly.  Then  you  will  not  go  to  drill, 
and  be  ignorant  of  your  part  in  it. 

And  you  must  make  your  drills  interesting  to  the  men, 
not  necessarily  by  variety,  though  that  is  necessary  to 
avoid  exhausting  their  attention  by  straining  it  too  long  on 
one  subject,  but  always  and  all  the  time  by  striving  for 
perfection  in  each  of  the  few  movements  undertaken,  by 
putting  your  own  vitality  into  it,  and  by  caring  so  much 
that  every  man  be  exactly  right  every  instant  that  you 
cannot  tolerate  inaccuracy  or  inattention,  and  will  nail 
each  one  of  these  on  the  head  the  instant  it  appears,  and 
by  being  interested  yourself  and  showing  your  interest  in 
the  tone  of  your  commands.  This  requires  vitality  on 
your  part.  You  give  of  your  strength  and  spirit,  and 
put  them  into  the  men.  It  is  exhausting  work.  If  you 
are  personally  sick,  your  drill  will  be  sick.  Do  not  pre- 
sume ,to  take  charge  then ;  give  your  subordinate  this 
chance  at  command. 

You  will  soon  so  train  your  eye  that  it  will  catch  the 
man  the  instant  he  starts  to  go  wrong,  and  by  calling  his 
name  and  telling  him  what  to  do  quickly,  you  will  often 
save  a  bad  break.  Do  not  waste  time  and  energy  to  ask 
"  where  the  h — 1  he  is  going."     He  might  stop  and  answer 


46  MITJTARY  TRAINING 

you.  Tell  him  where  to  go.  This  takes  training,  and 
knowing  the  men  by  name,  and  above  all  such  an  intimate 
knowledge  on  your  part  of  the  mechanism  of  each  move- 
ment that  you  can  spot  the  slip  the  instant  it  occurs. 

It  is  possible  to  prolong  this  drill  too  far,  until  close 
attention  becomes  impossible.  But  do  not  be  too  easy,  too 
careful  of  tiring  the  men.  Remember  you  are  trying  to 
train  their  wills  to  force  their  bodies  into  exact  obedience 
under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions.  Hence,  while 
the  drill  lasts,  attention  must  be  rigid  and  performance  ex- 
actly precise ;  and  it  should  be  continued  at  this  gait  until 
it  has  tested  somewhat  their  powers  of  endurance.  A 
good  instructor  watches  this  at  each  drill ;  the  periods  will 
naturally  grow  longer  with  practice.  They  should  never 
be  really  long.  The  very  essence  of  this  drill  is  concen- 
trated attention,  and  a  rapid  fire  of  commands,  snappy 
executions,  and  terse  corrections.  Then  quit.  Do  not 
ruin  the  effect  by  dawdling. 

That  all  of  the  leaders  may  have  the  necessary  prepar- 
ation in  advance  to  make  such  a  drill  possible,  requires  a 
scheme  of  instruction,  and  the  announcement  ahead  of 
time  of  the  fezv  movements  to  he  taken  up  at  the  next  drill. 
And  this  is  reasonable.  Your  time  is  limited ;  you  can 
attain  the  prescribed  standard  of  proficiency  only  by 
systematic  progressive  work.  It  is  futile  to  attempt  it 
hit  or  miss ;  or  to  attempt  to  cover  too  much  ground  at 
one  drill.  Remember  that  only  in  thoroughness  can  you 
get  the  most  important  results,  Morale. 

You  will  be  astonished  to  find  how  interested  both 
you  and  your  men  will  become  in  perfecting  these  few 
movements ;  and  once  perfected  they  will  never  bother 
again.  They  become  an  asset  for  future  drills.  Again 
you  will  be  astonished  at  how  soon  you  have  covered  all 
the  important  movements,  and  find  your  company  putting 
up  a  good  drill.  The  drill  book  looks  endless  taken  as  a 
whole.  But  resolve  it  into  its  parts,  take  them  in  proper 
turn — system  and  gradual  progress  by  steps  taken  thor- 
oughly will  bring  you  to  the  end  of  the  season  with  an 


CLOSE  ORDER  DRILL  47 

organization  that  is  efficient,  whose  men  are  confident  in 
their  ability  and  in  yours. 

You  have  got  to  be  helped  in  this  instruction  by  both 
the  noncommissioned  officers  and  the  men  themselves. 
In  the  regular  service  where  little  else  is  done  the  men 
learn  the  drill  by  having  it  hammered  into  them  daily. 
You  have  not  time  for  this,  nor  the  class  of  men  who  learn 
that  way.  Take  advantage  of  their  intelligence  and  in- 
terest, and  let  them  study  up  the  designated  subjects 
before  each  drill.  Let  them  get  the  spirit  of  the  thing, 
feel  that  they  are  in  part  responsible  for  the  success  of 
the  organization,  and  their  co-operation  will  make  the 
drills  go.  Each  private  should  have  in  his  possession  a 
copy  of  the  Drill  Regulations  and  a  copy  of  this  book. 
In  addition  each  non-commissioned  officer  should  have  the 
Field  Service  Regulations ;  and  in  the  office  for  easy 
reference  by  all  should  be  at  least  one  copy  of  each  of  the 
service  Manuals,  Regulations,  Law,  etc. 

You  simply  must  appreciate  the  necessity  of  this  sys- 
tem of  self-instruction  by  the  men  themselves,  of  having 
them  come  to  the  drill  knowing  the  book;  so  that  drill 
becomes  a  place  only  for  practice — illustrating,  perfecting 
and  co-ordinating  the  matter  in  hand,  not  for  standing 
about  listening  to  a  lot  of  words.  So  many  officers  miss 
this,  or  believe  it  impracticable,  and  continue  to  spend 
precious  hours  designed  for  drill  in  giving  explanations 
to  men  who  can  read  as  intelligently  as  themselves.  There 
is  no  training  to  be  had  from  standing  in  ranks  listening 
to  explanations,  it  is  ridiculous.  I  sometimes  wonder  if 
the  officers  who  deny  their  men  this  privilege  of  study, 
fear  their  learning  the  book  too  well. 

If  our  system  of  short  periods  of  training  for  citizen 
soldiers  is  to  be  other  than  a  complete  failure,  it  must  be 
only  through  thus  using  the  intelligence  and  initiative  of 
the  men  themselves,  to  speed  up  the  training.  This  is 
modem,  and  American,  and  our  only  possible  excuse  for 
not  adopting  the  Continental  standard  of  two  years'  con- 
tinuous training.     For  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  effi- 


48  MILITARY  TRAINING 

ciency  expert,  Germany,  would  not  spend  two  years 
training  an  infantry  private,  if  their  drill  system  could 
do  it  in  less  time. 

Compare  your  military  squad  with  a  football  squad. 
Each  is  composed  of  men  with  nerve  and  spirit  enough 
to  volunteer  to  fight  for  the  honor  of  their  institution,  both 
have  but  limited  time  for  training,  both  must  be 
so  trained  in  individual  skill  coalesced  into  team  work, 
so  disciplined  by  drill,  so  accustomed  to  sure  control 
under  excitement,  made  so  confident  of  their  ability  and 
of  that  of  their  captain,  that  they  may  go  to  the  field  of 
conflict  with  a  morale  that  knows  only  victory,  and  never 
knows  defeat.  Then  why  not  make  your  training  like 
that  of  the  successful  football  coach?  He  bows  to  no 
time  honored  traditions  of  making  automatons  of  his  men, 
but  uses  their  intelligence.  They  must  come  to  the  field 
knowing  the  details  of  the  plays.  No  time  there  for 
explanations.  The  practice  is  to  co-ordinate  and  perfect 
these  plays;  it  is  stiff  and  hard,  under  positive  direction, 
with  crisp  individual  corrections,  and  brief  pointed  in- 
structions. The  men  delight  in  it.  It  makes  them  sweat, 
but  their  blood  tingles  at  the  thought  of  the  coming  fight, 
for  they  are  confident  that  they  are  good  men  on  a  good 
team  under  a  smashing  good  captain.  The  same  plays  are 
practised  over  and  over  again,  and  with  no  loss  of  interest, 
for  every  man  is  striving  for  perfection,  knows  that  only 
by  thoroughness  and  a  sure  knowledge  of  the  funda- 
mental? can  his  team  get  that  morale  which  is  going  to 
carry  them  to  victory.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  years  of 
Yale's  football  supremacy,  she  used  to  come  down  to  the 
middle  of  the  season  with  but  six  plays  and  a  punt.  What 
a  lesson  in  the  value  of  thoroughness  for  the  military 
student.  And  you  may  make  your  military  drill  equally 
smart,  every  one  on  his  toes  to  make  the  execution  perfect. 
It  is  not  how  much  you  do  at  drill,  it  is  how  perfectly  you 
do  it. 

The  noncommissioned  officers  must  be  ready  to  act 
ably  as  instructors.     This  will  require,  until  this  system 


CLOSE  ORDER  DRILL  49 

has  resulted  in  their  proficiency,  that  the  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  get  together  and  train  themselves 
thoroughly  in  the  subjects  for  the  next  drill  before  they 
attempt  to  take  it.  For  with  volunteers  it  is  understood 
that  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  are  learning 
their  parts,  as  well  as  training  the  men.  In  this  pre- 
liminary drill,  each  may  well  take  turn  in  drilling  the 
others  as  a  squad  in  the  movements  under  discussion. 
This  has  two  advantages — it  assures  the  one  in  command 
of  his  ability  to  handle  the  situation,  and  both  he  and  those 
in  ranks  have  an  opportunity  to  discover  what  difficulties 
are  going  to  bother  the  men,  so  that  they  may  know  what 
points  to  watch  in  giving  the  drill.  This  system  will  take 
additional  time  for  officers,  noncommissioned  officers,  and 
selected  privates,  but  it  is  worth  it,  and  will  not  have  to  be 
continued  long  if  done  thoroughly.  It  has  been  used  with 
great  success  by  militia  organizations. 

All  should  realize  that  a  portion  of  the  "  object  of 
drill "  is  for  the  purpose  of  training  leaders,  officers  and 
noncommissioned  officers.  A  corporal  cannot  learn  to 
command  without  experience  in  commanding,  nor  can  a 
major  swing  his  squadron  without  practice.  The  ultimate 
object  of  all  your  training  is  preparedness  for  mobiliza- 
tion for  war ;  and  these  leaders  must  be  trained,  especially 
in  their  function  as  instructors,  that  they  may  quickly 
train  the  recruits  who  will  then  be  necessary  for  our 
armies. 

In  laying  out  in  advance  the  season's  work  for  his 
organization,  I  should  say  the  captain  would  have  to  give 
if  several  hours'  solid  thought.  He  should  size  up  his 
situation  and  see  what  he  can  make  of  it,  just  as  the  coach 
of  a  college  football  team  would  do.  Both  are  anxious  to 
come  to  the  end  of  the  season  with  the  best  perfected  or- 
ganization possible.  Both  have  certain  old  men  to  work 
with,  both  have  a  limited  amount  of  time  for  training, 
both  have  new  material  to  get  into  shape,  and  certain 
possibilities  as  to  recruits.  As  the  coach  maps  out  the 
work  so  as  to  employ  the  old  men  and  available  time  to  the 
4 


50  MILITARY  TRAINING 

best  advantage,  so  you  should  take  the  roster,  study  its 
personnel  as  to  fitness  and  necessary  training,  decide  what 
you  may  reasonably  accomplish  this  season  toward  effi- 
ciency, and  map  out  your  program  of  work.  You  will 
find  certain  men  prepared  to  act  as  instructors,  some  non- 
commissioned officers  who  need  to  be  developed  along  cer- 
tain lines,  some  along  others,  and  will  plan  work  for  them 
accordingly.  So  far  as  practicable  a  variety  of  work 
should  be  planned  so  that  well  qualified  men  will  not  have 
to  grind  along  through  drill  movements  in  which  they  are 
perfect,  while  beginners  are  being  practised  therein.  When 
all  have  become  smart,  then  all  may  participate  in  short 
smart  drills.  This  can  be  hastened  by  excusing  men 
from  any  given  drill  as  fast  as  they  show  proficiency 
therein.  This  requires  a  definite  plan  of  progressive 
work,  certain  new  movements  for  each  drill,  and  stim- 
ulates individual  study,  and  effort  at  drill.  Those  excused 
could  go  to  the  shooting  gallery,  or  some  other  interesting 
work  provided  in  your  program.  In  any  case  company 
drill  is  no  place  for  recruit  instruction.  While  that  is 
being  given,  older  men  should  be  engaged  in  one  or  sev- 
eral of  the  other  subjects  in  which  training  is  necessary. 
This  requires  qualified  instructors,  and  again  calls  for 
extra  work  in  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  noncommis- 
sioned officers.  To  sum  up,  the  commander  should  give 
the  necessary  time  to  planning  before  the  drill  season 
opens,  and  then  he  may  have  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
results  follow  the  development  of  the  work. 

Practical  Suggestions,  Close  Order  Drills. — Do  not 
waste  the  time  of  the  men  by  reciting  lengthy  explanations. 
Men  cannot  learn  that  way,  and  you  know  it,  if  you  recall 
when  you  were  in  ranks.  Get  busy  doing  things,  and 
briefly  correcting  individual  vital  mistakes. 

And  do  not  waste  the  time  of  all  in  teaching  one  man 
what  is  already  known  to  the  others.  If  he  is  clearly  out- 
classed, he  should  be  taken  out  and  given  to  some  non- 
commissioned officer  for  individual  instruction.  A  few 
doses  of  that  will  inspire  him  to  the  additional  effort. 


CLOSE  ORDER  DRILL  51 

In  dismounted  drill  the  accuracy  of  the  movements 
depends  on  the  correctness  of  the  movements  of  the  men's 
feet.  Therefore  you  must  watch  the  feet  to  catch  the 
mistakes  that  are  spoiling  the  drill.  To  illustrate :  I  have 
watched  a  lieutenant  trying  in  vain  to  make  his  platoon 
execute  properly  "  platoon  right  "  from  a  halt,  and  it  was 
always  ragged.  Had  he  watched  the  men's  feet  at  the 
command  "  march,"  he  would  have  seen  that,  where  every 
man  should  step  off  simultaneously  in  the  right  oblique 
with  a  full  thirty-inch  step,  they  were  taking  one  or  two 
hesitating  steps.  Try  this  movement  as  a  lesson  to  your- 
self as  drill  instructor.  You  may  have  to  face  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  men  and  show  them  how  to  step 
off  freely  in  the  oblique  at  the  command ;  you  may  even 
have  to  require  them  to  take  the  position  of  the  first 
step  completed  without  marching,  to  show  them  what  the 
correct  step  should  be.  You  will  have  interested  your- 
self and  the  men  if  you  get  it  correctly.  And  so  in  all 
dismounted  movements,  watch  the  feet.  In  mounted 
drill,  the  horse  takes  the  place  of  the  men's  feet,  and 
accuracy  of  the  movements  depends  upon  the  man's  con- 
trol of  the  horse.  Hence  in  mounted  drills,  you  must 
watch  the  movements  of  the  horses,  as  you  did  the  men's 
feet  in  dismounted  drill. 

If  you  would  only  appreciate  the  tremendous  advan- 
tage of  commenting  on*  the  various  movements  at  drill. 
You  are  out  there  as  an  instructor,  a  critic  of  their  work. 
You  command  "  squads  right,  march."  The  men  try  to 
execute  it  properly.  You  say  nothing,  but  perhaps  give 
the  same  command  again.  They  wonder  why.  Was 
some  one  wrong?  Who?  No  one  knows.  If  it  was 
done  correctly,  they  should  have  the  satisfaction  of  know- 
ing it;  call  out,  "good."  If  you  think  it  could  be  done 
better,  say  so ;  explain  wherein,  and  order  it  again.  Make 
the  drill  personal  to  each  man,  vitalize  it,  show  the  men 
that  you  know  good  work  from  bad,  and  that  you  want 
only  good.  Use  your  voice.  Perhaps  the  general  execu- 
tion is  poor ;  the  men  are  careless,  perhaps  they  have  not 


I 

62  MILITARY  TRAINING 

yet  settled  down  to  business.  The  tone  of  your  command 
as  you  repeat  it  will  be  the  only  comment  necessary,  and 
each  man  will  realize  that  he  must  wake  up. 

But  where  all  are  trying  to  drill  well,  and  it  is  up  to 
you  to  see  that  they  are,  if  a  movement  has  been  marred 
by  certain  individuals,  they  should  be  corrected  persotially 
Where  all,  officers  and  men,  are  working  together  to  learn 
the  game,  there  is  no  affront  in  a  personal  correction,  un- 
less you  unfortunately  put  it  in  your  tone  or  manner  in 
making  the  correction.  Where  the  mistakes  result  from 
shiftlessness,  a  little  affront  might  be  timely,  and  is  no 
more  than  due  to  the  others  who  are  trying.  Take  a  case : 
a  certain  captain  had  evidently  determined  once  for  all  to 
see  that  his  troop  mounted  properly.  At  the  command 
"  mount "  the  troop  did  excellently,  excepting  three  men 
who  missed  it.  Without  a  word  of  reason  why,  the  cap* 
tain  dismounted  the  troop  and  again  mounted  them.  This 
time  the  execution  was  as  a  whole  very  good.  Still  without 
comment,  he  repeated  the  whole  thing  and  this  time  results 
were  barely  good.  The  lesson  is  plain.  The  men  became 
indifferent,  not  knowing  what  was  in  the  captain's  mind. 
At  the  first  mount  he  could  have  said  "  very  good,  except 
Smith,  Jones  and  Andrews,"  and  told  wherein  they  failed. 
Then,  "  Let's  make  this  perfect,"  or  "  for  the  sake  of  those 
three  men  we  have  to  do  it  over."  In  that  way  he  makes 
it  personal  and  vital.  You  must  learn  to  talk  as  situations 
demand  it.  A  company  could  arrange  to  have  a  phono- 
graph grind  out  commands,  if  that  were  all  it  needed  for 
drill. 

Commands. — The  actual  giving  of  commands  at  drill 
is  an  art  in  itself.  In  addition  to  the  instructions  of  your 
drill  manual,  remember  always  that  your  command  is  for 
the  man  furthest  from  you,  the  rear  man  in  a  column  as 
well  as  the  leading,  and  insist  on  his  obeying  your  com- 
mand of  execution  as  exactly  as  the  leading  man. 

Use  your  natural  voice,  otherwise  in  time  of  excite- 
ment you  are  very  likely  to  change  from  your  normal  voice 
and  thus  betray  yourself  as  excited;  and,  too,  your  men 


COMMANDS  53 

should  be  able  to  recognize  your  voice  in  work  by  night. 

Experiment  with  giving  commands,  and  you  will  find 
that  by  your  manner  and  tone  of  voice  alone  you  can 
actually  control  the  kind  of  execution  your  command 
receives.  You  can  get  careful,  deliberate  results,  or  quick 
nervous  ones,  as  you  desire.  Your  tone  may  be  such  as 
fairly  to  put  the  men  to  sleep,  or  it  may  have  such  vim  that 
some  muscle  must  jump  at  the  command  of  execution. 
How  often  we  see  all  the  snap  taken  out  of  a  company  by 
an  officer  whose  commands  lack  punch  and  vitality. 

And  again  a  skilful  officer  will  by  his  tone  of  command, 
lift  a  company  out  of  its  dream  and  inject  life  and  snap 
into  every  movement ;  best  of  all,  he  can  take  an  outfit  that 
has  become  "  rattled  "  through  poor  leadership,  the  men 
nervously  trying  hard  but  unable  to  do  anything  correctly, 
and  with  a  few  quietly  given  commands  bring  them  back 
to  easy  control  and  accurate  performance.  If  you  aspire 
to  become  a  reasonably  good  drill  master  you  must  study 
the  art  of  giving  commands  properly. 

An  order  in  the  regular  service  requires  men  to  execute 
the  movement  they  believe  was  intended  when  an  incorrect 
command  has  been  given.  While  this  may  do  where  long 
practice  makes  the  men  fairly  sure  what  is  intended,  it 
will  hardly  do  in  the  Volunteers.  Two  diflFerent  inter; 
pretations  of  a  command  are  enough,  if  acted  upon  by 
individuals,  to  convert  a  military  formation  into  a  mass 
from  which  it  can  be  extricated  by  no  military  command 
other  than  "  fall  in,"  or  "  assemble."  It  is  furthermore 
bad  habit-forming  to  teach  men  to  do  what  they  think  is 
right,  rather  than  to  obey  implicitly  the  commands  of  their 
leader.  It  is  better  that  all  obey  the  command  given,  if 
possible  of  execution,  thus  keeping  the  company  in  some 
military  formation  admitting  of  quick  correction  by  mili- 
tary commands  ;  and  also  clearly  fixing  the  blame  for  the 
mistake  on  the  responsible  party.  \ 

In  dismounted  movements  from  a  halt,  the  men  sway 
their  bodies  slightly  forward  and  to  the  right  at  the 
preparatory  command,  to  put  the  centre  of  gravity  of  their 


54  MILITARY  TRAINING 

bodies  over  the  right  leg  so  it  may  lift  and  propel  the  body 
forward  as  the  left  leg  swings  smartly  its  full  thirty  inches 
to  the  front  at  the  command  "  March."  This  corresponds 
to  "  gathering  the  horse  "  at  mounted  drill,  to  enable  him 
likewise  to  step  off  smartly  at  the  command  of  execution. 
This  preparation  for  the  command  of  execution  makes  it 
imperative,  if  you  want  a  smart  movement,  that  the  com- 
mand be  given  after  a  uniform  length  of  pause,  and  not 
held  indefinitely.  If  it  has  been  necessary  to  inject  ex- 
planations or  other  remarks,  after  giving  the  preparatory 
command,  this  command  should  always  be  rep>eated  before 
giving  that  of  execution. 

Chiefs  of  platoons  and  file  closers  must  always  avoid 
talking  to  the  men  in  ranks  when  the  instructor  is  making 
explanations,  or  giving  commands.  It  is  impossible  for 
a  man  in  ranks  to  give  attention  to  two  men  at  once.  And 
their  corrections  must  be  directed  to  the  individual  at 
fault,  first  calling  his  name,  and  using  a  tone  that  will 
carry  to  him  alone — all  this  to  avoid  distracting  the  atten- 
tion of  the  men.  It  is  a  custom  of  the  service  for  file 
closers  to  consider  themselves  rather  ornamental  than  use- 
ful. We  frequently  hear  the  commander  cautioning 
them  at  least  to  keep  out  of  the  way.  A  great  mistake. 
They  can  be  made  so  helpful.  Make  them  feel  that  they 
have  an  important  part  to  play  in  watching  for  mistakes 
and  correcting  them  before  quite  committed,  and  in  keep- 
ing the  men  alert  and  soldierly.  Give  each  his  own  part 
of  the  line  to  watch,  his  "  fire  sector  "  as  it  were,  and  get 
after  him  now  and  then,  instead  of  correcting  the  man 
himself,  whom  the  file  closer  should  have  corrected.  It  is 
a  good  sign  to  see  a  file  closer  call  an  individual  to  atten- 
tion when  the  company  has  been  given  "  rest,"  and  give 
him  some  needed  instruction.  It  will  not  only  help  this 
individual,  but  will  add  to  the  attentiveness  of  the  others 
during  the  remainder  of  the  drill. 

Guides,  and  Uniformity  of  Gaits. — Attention  to 
these  is  one  of  the  most  essential  things  to  the  excellence 
of  drill.    The  best  drill  will  be  spoiled  by  the  failure  in 


,     SETTING  UP  DRILLS  55 

either  of  these  essentials.  Instruction  should  include 
close  attention  to  them  from  the  first. 

As  any  man  may  find  himself  a  guide  at  any  time,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  every  recruit  be  taught  how  to 
march  in  a  straight  line  always  keeping  two  points  well  in 
front  of  him  in  his  line  of  march;  how  to  pick  up  the 
new  direction  after  a  wheel  or  turn,  quickly  and  accurately 
at  the  correct  angle;  and  the  vital  importance  of  holding 
the  gait  uniform  as  the  guide  shifts  from  one  man  to 
another. 

Next,  all  leaders  must  appreciate  the  importance  of 
announcing  the  guide  whenever  the  movement  calls  for  it, 
of  seeing  that  there  is  no  misunderstanding  as  to  what 
individual  is  the  guide,  and  of  constantly  watching  that 
this  guide  be  correct  as  to  direction  and  gait  In  each 
movement  and  part  of  a  movement  there  is  always  one 
man  responsible  for  direction  and  gait.  Unless  your 
study  of  each  movement  includes  an  understanding  of 
who  he  is  in  each  case,  you  are  powerless  to  make  proper 
corrections  or  to  assist  properly  in  the  execution  of  move- 
ments at  drill.  The  book  covers  this  matter  in  every  case ; 
it  is  impracticable  to  repeat  the  rules  here.  The  great 
thing  is  to  impress  upon  you  the  necessity  of  considering 
the  guide  and  the  gait  in  every  movement.  Remember 
this  general  rule :  Whenever  two  or  more  men  march  be- 
side each  other,  they  form  a  rank,  and  there  is  always  one 
individual  man  in  that  rank  who  is  responsible  for  its  gait 
and  direction,  the  guide — and  the  others  must  regulate 
themselves  on  him. 

Setting  up  Drills. — Every  arm  of  the  service  recog- 
nizes the  value  of  these  drills  in  controlled  physical  exer- 
cise. .They  are  splendid  training  in  discipline,  and  in 
muscular  control  and  co-ordination.  Given  regularly 
right  after  reveille,  and  followed  by  the  morning  wash,  or 
swim  if  possible,  they  prepare  body  and  mind  for  the  keen 
work  of  the  day.  They  are  equally  advantageous  in  lend- 
ing a  refreshing  variety  in  drills  of  precision.  Both  the 
military  carriage,  and  a  soldier's  duties,  demand  a  co- 


56  MILITARY  TRAINING 

ordination  and  balance  of  the  muscles  not  often  found  in 
civil  life,  while  the  seat  mounted  is  an  impossibility  unless 
the  back  and  loins  are  supple  to  a  degree.  To  get  their 
full  benefit,  all  setting  up  exercises  must  be  done  with 
both  force  and  rhythm,  and  should  be  done  in  a  cheerful 
spirit,  which  will  be  inspired  by  the  manner  of  the  instruc- 
tor. This  is  no  place  for  verbal  instruction,  the  men  will 
keep  their  eyes  on  the  leader  and  will  quickly  pick  up  any 
movement  by  imitation.  A  skilled  leader  should  set  the 
pace,  standing  well  in  front,  faced  the  same  way  as  the 
men;  while  the  instructor  watches  the  squad,  and  gives 
the  commands  and  counts  in  a  tone  of  voice  suited  to  the 
movements  he  desires,  sharp  for  the  snappy  ones,  full  and 
firm  for  the  slower  ones. 

Manuals  of  the  Arms. — Learning  the  manuals  should 
be  largely  up  to  the  individual  eflforts  of  the  soldier  himself. 
You  have  no  time  for  teaching  them.  The  West  Point 
cadet  practises  them  before  the  mirror,  and  I  know  no 
other  way  in  which  they  may  be  learned  so  accurately  and 
quickly.  The  individual  should  have  the  privilege  of 
using  a  rifle,  saber  and  pistol  for  this  purpose ;  and  alone 
with  his  open  book,  facing  himself  in  the  mirror,  he  can 
rapidly  perfect  himself,  and  save  his  squad  and  his  squad 
leader  much  annoyance. 

Let  him  observe  the  fundamental  principle,  to  handle 
his  weapon  always  by  the  muscles  of  his  arms  alone.  He 
should  acquire  such  familiarity  with  its  balance  and  feel, 
that  he  can  snap  it  about  fearlessly  and  accurately,  nor 
need  to  dodge  lest  he  hit  himself  on  the  head.  Nothing 
will  control  the  cadence  like  counting  aloud  in  a  firm  tone 
in  the  same  cadence  as  the  quick  time  march. 

In  recruit  instruction  much  time  and  annoyance  will 
be  saved  by  using  the  squad  to  illustrate  in  every  one  of  its 
details  the  mechanism  of  each  movement  before  you  begin 
to  drill  it.  That  is,  have  your  squad  perform  it  one  step 
at  a  time ;  if  necessary,  actually  place  each  man,  and  his 
feet,  in  the  correct  position ;  then,  all  standing  fast,  have 
them  look  it  over,  and,  proceeding  thus,  you  may  end  by 


EXTENDED  ORDER  67 

their  all  getting  a  clear  mental  picture  of  how  it  is  done, 
which  will  make  perfect  performance  much  more  quickly 
possible. 

Extended  Order. — But  close  order  drill  may  properly 
occupy  but  a  small  fraction  of  your  time.  The  extended 
order  and  battle  exercises  offer  the  most  interesting  field 
for  training,  for  the  men  are  learning  the  mechanism  of 
control  that  will  be  actually  used  in  battle,  the  actual 
"plays  "  they  are  going  to  make  in  the  coming  contest. 

Here  the  squad  leader  and  his  team  are  first  found 
as  an  individual  unit  of  the  company.  Here  the  corporal 
first  realizes  his  personal  importance  in  the  machine,  and 
his  resf>onsibility  for  its  successful  working.  Here  he 
gets  his  best  chance  for  self  training  as  a  leader,  and  for 
training  his  team  to  work  together  as  an  efficient  unit. 
And  these  teams  must  be  perfected  as  such,  for  the  com- 
pany drill  is  but  the  captain  handling  his  squads  as  in- 
dividual elements  of  his  own  team,  the  company. 

In  the  regular  service,  these  drills  are  conducted  "  at 
ease,"  the  design  being  to  develop  the  initiative  of  the 
men.  For  the  citizen  soldier,  they  may  well  be  conducted 
on  the  drill  field  with  the  same  precision  and  attention  to 
accuracy,  as  the  drills  in  close  order.  You  need  the 
training  in  discipline,  for  which  you  have  so  little  time; 
and  you  do  not  need  any  training  in  initiative.  You  get 
that  in  your  daily  walk,  trying  to  make  a  living.  But 
later,  working  on  varied  ground,  applying  these  drills,  you 
must  drop  all  thought  of  precision,  and  give  your  initiative 
full  play. 

Battle  Exercises. — These  are  held  out-of-doors,  on 
varied  ground,  preferably  unfamiliar,  and  are  for  the 
purpose  of  practising  the  "  plays  "  you  have  learned  at 
drill,  developing  the  leader's  ability  to  make  quick  deci- 
sions in  emergency,  to  use  the  right  "  play  "  for  the  occa- 
sion, to  keep  quiet  control  in  excitement.  They  are  the 
practical  end  of  training,  absolutely  necessary  to  fitness 
for  war.  Without  them,  you  are  no  more  ready  for  a 
fight  than  a  boxer  who  had  learned  the  blows,  the  parries, 


58  MILITARY  TRAINING 

and  the  foot  work,  but  had  never  practised  them  on  a 
friendly  opponent.  You  will  have  to  act  almost  as 
quickly  as  he,  and,  under  the  terrific  strain  of  the  battle- 
field, will  need  that  much  practice  shall  have  made  correct 
decisions  come  to  you  intuitively. 

For  this  reason  these  exercises  are  always  made  as 
real  as  possible,  by  assuming  in  each  case  a  reasonable 
military  situation,  of  which  your  exercise  is  a  part,  by 
always  explaining  in  advance  this  situation  to  the  men  so 
they  may  know  why  they  are  "  making  these  special 
plays,"  by  never  repeating  the  same  exercise  twice  alike, 
by  assuming  the  presence  of  an  enemy  and  representing 
him  when  possible,  and  by  the  use  of  blank  ammunition 
to  lend  added  reality.  They  should  be  made  very  simple 
at  first ;  you  will  find  that  the  simplest,  if  at  all  realistic, 
will  give  you  all  the  excitement  and  confusion  you  can 
well  handle.  Squad  problems  are  large  enough  ;  in  fact, 
until  the  squad  leader  can  exercise  intelligent,  quiet  con- 
trol of  his  squad  in  emergency,  it  is  folly  for  the  captain  to 
attempt  to  handle  the  company. 

If  you  think  this  too  simple,  try  it.  Plan  to  conduct  a 
^squad  as  part  of  a  problem  through  some  section  of  broken 
country,  and  let  two  men  representing  an  enemy,  unex- 
pectedly open  fire  on  you  from  ambush.  If  you  then 
handle  your  men  properly,  calm  their  excitement  rather 
than  increase  it  by  your  own — report  the  fact  at  Wash- 
ington. We  need  you  in  the  regular  service.  You  will 
more  likely  be  convinced  of  the  vast  need  for  more  of 
just  such  practice. 

Every  command  must  have  it,  and  should  find  some 
way  to  get  it.  And  it  is  quite  as  important  for  the  gen- 
eral, the  army  commander,  to  have  this  practice,  as  for 
the  squad  leader.  Yet  this  is  made  quite  impossible  in 
the  regular  service,  by  the  paucity  of  soldiers  and  their 
dispersion  for  economic  purposes  in  small,  widely  separ- 
ated posts.  That  officer  is  rare,  above  the  grade  of  major, 
who  has  opportunity  to  practise  himself  and  his  command 
in  actual  control  for  battle. 


BATTLE  EXERCISES  59 

But  small  commands  can  arrange  to  get  it.  Certain 
militia  organizations  march  out  into  the  country  on  Satur- 
day afternoons,  bivouac  for  the  night  in  some  pleasant 
spot,  and  spend  Sunday  forenoon  in  carrying  out  some 
carefully  thought  out  exercises.  These  expeditions  are 
made  strictly  military;  and  are  thus  as  helpful  in  the 
training,  as  they  are  healthful  and  delightful  outings  for 
the  men.  And  again,  where  suitable  ground  can  be 
reached  in  time,  the  long  spring  evenings  offer  ample  time 
for  interesting  practical  work  in  patrolling,  outposting, 
and  similar  exercises 

It  is  only  thus  that  you  will  get  any  clear  conceptions 
of  troop  leading,  of  combat,  patrolling,  marching  and 
bivouacing.  And  this  is  the  kind  of  soldiering,  not  drill 
in  close  order,  that  the  man  had  in  mind  when  he  enlisted. 
He  deserves  to  get  it;  and  is  defrauded  unless  he  gets 
some  experience  in  roughing  it,  in  the  thrill  of  an  advance 
to  the  attack,  or  the  stealthy  approach  of  a  patrol. 

In  all  these  exercises,  a  sense  of  reality  must  lend  the 
element  of  excitement  and  earnestness,  so  important  for 
the  pyschological  training  in  control.  This  is  best  done 
by  the  use  of  blank  ammunition.  You  will  be  astonished 
to  find  how  at  first  a  single  unexpected  shot  will  start  the 
heart  beats,  and  how  a  few  volleys  will  set  all  your  nerves 
a  tingle.  These  are  the  conditions  that  show  up  a  man's 
qualities  for  leadership.  And  it  is  leaders  the  nation  is 
seeking.  In  every  organization,  the  officers  should  be 
looking  out  for  the  men  who  here  show  qualities  of  leader- 
ship, and  give  them  opportunities  for  their  development. 
The  idea  should  prevail  that  every  man  is  a  potential 
leader,  and  that  his  country  may  need  him  as  such.  This 
will  make  them  eager  to  learn  their  parts  better. 

The  company  is  the  highest  organization  in  which 
the  commander  deals  directly  with  the  individual  men. 
Drills  and  exercises  of  larger  units  are  primarily  for  the 
benefit  of  the  officers.  The  men,  however,  get  the  benefit, 
when  each  organization  is  handled  smartly  by  its  leader, 
made  to  work  smoothly  as  a  well  drilled  team,  its  elements 


60  MILITARY  TRAINING 

always  in  good  order.  And  this  idea  must  carry  through, 
down  to  include  the  squad.  In  reality  the  squad  is  the 
prime  unit  for  training  individuals,  particularly  in  these 
extended  order  exercises.  Here  the  leader  best  studies 
his  men,  to  learn  their  individual  peculiarities  and  capabili- 
ties. And  this  he  must  do  faithfully,  for  it  will  be  vital 
later  that  he  know  which  man  to  send  on  any  given  im- 
portant mission.  Well,  too,  that  he  keep  in  mind  that  his 
men  are  studying  him  as  well.  He  may  make  mistakes, 
but  if  he  hopes  ever  to  lead  these  men  in  battle,  let  them 
not  be  mistakes  of  weakness,  indecision,  or  failure  to 
jump  into  openings  that  may  offer. 

The  squad  leader  should  realize  that  he  is  responsible 
that  all  his  men  know  their  parts  so  well  that  he  can 
handle  them  with  perfect  control  in  whatever  conditions 
arise  in  unknown  varied  ground.  He  must  practise  them 
in  advancing  through  country  with  the  best  possible  con- 
cealment and  the  least  loss  of  time  and  control ;  in  quickly 
and  quietly  occupying  a  given  firing  position  in  all  kinds 
of  places  and  under  all  manner  of  circumstances ;  in  de- 
livering the  kind  of  fire  he  wants,  and  at  the  exact  desired 
objective;  in  changing  the  fire,  and  the  objective;  in 
rushing  forward  properly  in  line,  and  occupying  a  new 
position ;  in  scouting,  in  rallying ;  in  fact,  in  all  the  ex- 
periences of  the  field,  he  must  be  sure  through  much 
mutual  practice  that  they  will  understand  his  will,  and 
know  how  to  perform  it  accurately. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  things  will  be  to  designate  the 
desired  objective  for  their  fire.  The  living  target  may 
not  be  visible,  probably  will  not  be.  The  enemy  will  seek 
concealment,  and  avoid  conspicuous  aiming  points.  You 
have  got  to  direct  the  fire  of  your  men  so  the  bullets  will 
strike  more  than  a  half  mile  away  in  a  limited  space  which 
you  can  barely  make  out  with  your  field  glasses.  '  This 
means  for  you  not  only  the  ability  to  estimate  the  range 
correctly,  but  equally  important,  the  ability  to  define  the 
location  of  that  space  to  your  men  in  such  a  way  that  they 
may  aim  correctly  to  hit  it.     Try  this  for  an  objective 


BATTLE  EXERCISES  61 

difficult  to  point  out,  and  you  will  appreciate  the  need  for 
much  practice.  You  may  then  abjure  the  pernicious  habit 
of  designating  the  target  at  drill  by  the  lazy  means  of 
commanding,  "  at  the  enemy,"  when  there  is  no  enemy. 
Rather  you  will  select  a  target  difficult  to  locate,  and 
require  the  men  to  follow  your  definition  of  it  attentively, 
till  they  are  aiming  at  the  exact  point  desired.  Then,  in 
the  excitement  of  battle,  habit  may  induce  them  to  look 
to  you  for  directions  where  to  fire.  Otherwise  they  will 
fire  at  will  at  what  seems  the  most  dangerous  target,  and 
perhaps  by  so  doing,  defeat  the  very  object  of  your  being 
in  line  at  all.  And  how  many  nicely  laid  plans  have  been 
defeated  by  the  premature  firing  of  some  undisciplined 
soldier,  too  nervous  to  play  his  part  properly  in  the  team 
work! 

The  best  practice  is  to  designate  some  distinctive  object 
in  the  field  of  view  which  the  men  cannot  miss,  from 
which  as  a  datum  point  the  target  may  be  found  as  so 
many  fingers,  or  so  many  rear  sight  leaves,  away  to  the 
right  or  left.  Direction  is  quite  accurately  described  by 
reference  to  the  clock  dial,  assumed  to  be  spread  horizon- 
tally on  the  ground,  with  12  o'clock  the  perpendicular 
straight  to  our  front. 

Leaders  are  going  to  fall  out  unexpectedly  in  the  bat- 
tle. This  suggests  most  important  practice.  Arrange 
that  certain  ones  shall  drop  out  unexpectedly,  without 
warning,  at  critical  moments  in  the  development  of  an 
exercise.  See  that  the  next  man  quietly  assumes  the 
responsibility  of  leadership,  without  confusing  the  men. 
They  should  be  accustomed  to  this  by  practice,  so  that  it 
will  not  shock  them  in  battle. 

And  in  all  these  exercises,  expect  many  mistakes  to 
be  made.  Do  not  try  to  avoid  them  by  telling  your  leaders 
in  advance  how  to  handle  each  situation.  No  one  is  going 
to  be  able  to  tell  them  in  battle ;  and  only  by  personal  ex- 
perience can  their  minds  be  trained  to  do  this  thinking 
correctly  for  themselves.     Sacrifice  your  desire  to  pull 


62  MILITARY  TRAINING 

off  a  perfect  exercise,  to  the  greater  good  of  developing 
their  iniative,  and  willingness  to  take  responsibility. 

He  will  be  an  impossible  leader  on  the  battlefield,  who, 
suddenly  confronted  by  a  situation,  tries  to  stop  and  think 
how  Alexander  or  Baden-Powell  would  have  handled  it. 
Rather  let  him  then  respond  to  the  impulse  of  the  recollec- 
tion that  both  were  men  of  wonderful  nerve,  and  above 
all  resource;  and  let  him  realize  now,  in  his  training,  that 
the  development  of  these  qualities  by  practice,  is  going  to 
result  in  some  hope  of  his  having  on  the  battlefield  enough 
of  these  faculties  to  make  his  own  quick  decision  the  best 
rule  of  conduct. 

Once  out  in  the  country,  it  takes  only  a  fair  imagina- 
tion, and  an  honest  willingness  to  use  your  brain,  to  devise 
an  endless  series  of  small  exercises,  in  patrol,  outpost, 
attack  and  similar  problems,  one  squad  against  another, 
introducing  an  element  of  surprise,  in  all  which  both  you 
and  your  men  will  be  getting  the  practice  that  will  de- 
velop the  qualities  of  courage,  steady  nerve,  and  resource, 
so  necessary  for  all  in  battle. 

Night  exercises  are  particularly  valuable  for  this  train- 
ing. You  will  be  astonished  to  find  how  darkness  will 
magnify  the  soldier's  terror,  and  diminish  his  common 
sense  and  courage.  Practice  only  will  ever  enable  you  to 
operate  at  all  after  dark.  From  adjusting  equipment 
hurriedly  in  the  dark,  to  keeping  up  proper  communica- 
tion and  control  in  the  advance  to  an  attack,  each  step 
should  be  practiced,  until  familiarity  has  developed 
faculties  and  steady  nerves  in  these  unusual  conditions. 

Always,  and  preferably  at  once  on  the  immediate 
ground,  each  exercise  should  be  discussed,  how  it  could 
have  been  done,  and  how  not.  And  in  these  discussions, 
do  not  arbitrate  solely  according  to  fixed  precepts.  En- 
courage the  use  of  expedients,  above  all  the  application  of 
cunning  and  common  sense.  These  will  be  invaluable 
qualities  for  men  engaged  in  small  affairs,  scouting, 
patrolling,  etc.  Even  in  large  battles,  as  that  of  the  Yalu, 
successful  generals  have  resorted  to  schemes  to  fool  the 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  63 

enemy,  which  smaller  minds  would  have  discarded  as 
being  too  much  like  horseplay.*  All  the  more  in  the 
presence  of  aeroplane  reconnaissance,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  understand  concealment,  and  to  employ  ruses  for  giving 
false  information. 

It  is  impossible  even  to  suggest  the  various  necessary 
exercises  here.  Your  own  intelligent  and  active  interest 
must  plan  them  for  you.  If  work  is  such  that  many  must 
be  idle,  while  the  few  are  engaged,  plan  to  occupy  this 
time  with  interesting  instruction  or  practice;  estimating 
distances,  explaining  some  interesting  thing  connected 
with  the  service,  form  two  circuits  of  the  men  and  hold  a 
competition  in  the  correct  transmission  of  a  verbal 
message,  a  contest  in  signalling,  in  caring  for  a  comrade 
wounded  in  some  specified  manner,  etc.,  etc.  Fore- 
thought on  your  part  will  provide  for  this.  And  what- 
ever you  do,  explain  your  object  and  reasons,  and  thus 
enlist  intelligent  co-operation. 

Practical  Instructions. — There  are  so  many  homely 
things  that  even  a  well  drilled  soldier  must  know  before  he 
is  fit  to  go  into  campaign :  the  proper  use  of  equipment, 
individual  cooking  and  tent  pitching,  use  of  his  arms  and 
their  proper  care,  packing  the  haversack,  man,  horse,  and 
wagon,  first  aid  to  the  wounded,  and  so  on.  They  will 
seem  endless;  and  there  is  just  one  way  to  learn  them, 
and  that  is  one  thing  at  a  time.  This  is  an  important  part 
of  the  captain's  schedule  spoken  of  before.  He  will  list 
the  things  he  is  going  to  teach,  determine  the  time  he  can 
give  to  each,  and  then  apportion  them  to  the  drill  periods 
available.  Most  of  this  instruction  can  best  be  given  by 
noncommissioned  officers  to  small  groups,  for  it  consists 
largely  in  illustration  and  practice  under  supervision, 
where  a  few  men  only,  are  much  more  satisfactorily 
handled  than  many.  System,  forethought  and  previous 
preparation  in  each  case,  will  enable  you  to  cover  the 
whole  ground  quite  satisfactorily.  It  will  lend  variety 
and  a  practical  interest  to  the  drill  period,  which  will  result 

♦  Read  Col.  Mallison's  "  Ruses  and  Stratagems  of  War." 


64  MILITARY  TRAINING 

in   the   men's   leaving   it   with   an   added   assurance  of 
accompHshment. 

All  of  the  above  must  have  impressed  you  with  the 
great  amount  of  time  necessary  for  training  soldiers,  and 
how  small  a  portion  of  it  may  rightly  be  given  to  close 
order  drill.  That  is  just,  and  is  the  reason  why  such 
importance  is  given  to  trying  to  make  your  close  order 
drill  what  it  should  be.  You  will  then  be  justified  in 
giving  little  time  to  it — while  if  you  fail  to  make  it  what 
it  should  be,  the  less  time  you  give  to  it  the  better. 

Maneuvers. — These  are  the  battle  exercises  described 
above,  on  a  larger  scale,  and  include  also  training  in  as 
much  as  possible  of  practical  field  work,  marching,  camp- 
ing, sanitation,  supply,  all  the  experiences  of  field  service. 
They  are  the  ultimate  goal  of  peace  training,  and  our  final 
test  of  leadership,  organization,  supply,  in  fact  of  our 
general  fitness. 

There  is  no  need  to  consider  here  their  absolute  neces- 
sity in  fitting  for  campaign  our  commanding  generals  and 
their  staflfs.  For  you,  their  great  value  is  two- fold: 
practical  experience  in  the  care  of  men  and  materiel  in 
the  field,  and  the  psychological  training  in  leadership  and 
control.  There  is  no  need  to  caution  you  to  make  condi- 
tions real,  to  enter  with  zest  into  the  battle  exercises.- 
Pride,  and  the  desire  to  win  the  decision,  do  that — to  ex- 
cess. The  need  is  for  you  to  go  slower,  to  avoid  excite- 
ment, to  try  to  keep  that  control  of  your  men  which  you 
know  to  be  so  necessary  in  battle ;  to  try  to  keep  your 
head  clear,  and,  remembering  the  fundamental  principles 
of  tactics,  see  that  you  violate  none  of  them ;  to  avoid 
letting  your  desire  to  win  lead  you  to  violate  the  rules  of 
the  game,  do  something  you  know  you  would  not  under- 
take in  actual  warfare.  The  whole  success  of  these  exer- 
cises lies  in  everyone  playing  the  game  honestly,  according 
to  the  rules. 

And  if  you  want  to  get  the  greatest  good,  and  to  win 
the  astonished  applause  of  the  umpires,  go  into  them 
highly  resolved  that,  under  sudden  fire  or  unexpected 


MANEUVERS  65 

orders  to  deploy,  you  will  not  lead  a  bunch  of  sheep  to 
the  attack,  but  will  handle  your  men  properly,  using  the 
mechanism  of  control  you  have  taught  them.  Some  senior 
officer  may  be  wildly  waving  his  arms  and  shouting  or- 
ders ;  swear  that  you  will  lead  your  command  properly,  if 
it  takes  another  half  minute.  It  will  be  a  rare  sight, 
and  bring  joy  in  headquarters.  This  may  seem  exagger- 
ated ;  read  the  report  of  an  umpire  at  a  recent  maneuver : 

"  The  conduct  of  the  troops  in  battle  action,  especially 
in  the  initial  deployments  upon  getting  contact,  generally 
showed  an  utter  disregard  of  the  mechanism  of  control 
prescribed  in  the  Infantry  manual,  or  of  any  other;  or- 
ganizations were  often  advanced  like  a  flock  of  sheep 
rather  than  as  a  well-regulated  fighting  machine,  and  the 
men  were  thus  taught  habits  of  confused  action  rather 
than  those  of  the  sure  control  that  should  obtain.  Rec- 
ommended :  That  in  each  command  preliminary  field 
training  be  required,  specifying  that  each  unit  from  squad 
up  to  battalion,  shall  be  given  such  experience  in  deploying 
from  patrol  and  march  formations  to  meet  unexpected 
fire  in  unfamiliar  surroundings,  as  will  satisfy  the  com- 
mander that  each  unit  leader  is  able  to  execute  a  sudden 
call  to  go  into  action,  without  undue  excitement  or  loss 
of  control.  Also,  that  during  maneuvers,  commanders 
shall  be  instructed  to  look  upon  each  engagement  with  the 
enemy  as  an  unusual  opportunity  for  exercising  their 
commands  in  the  mechanism  of  the  attack;  and  that 
their  success  will  be  judged  by  the  nicety  of  control,  use 
of  ground,  and  fire  discipline  that  they  attain,  rather  than 
by  the  speed  with  which  they  move  forward.  This  may 
result  in  sometimes  seeing  troops  actually  advanced  in 
maneuvers  somewhat  as  they  should  be  in  war." 

The  point  is  to  go  to  maneuvers,  appreciating  the  rare 
opportunity  they  oflFer,  both  for  practical  field  training 
and  for  developing  battle  qualities  ;  and  then  to  determine 
to  justify  the  government  in  sending  you  by  using  your 
brain  and  body  to  capacity,  in  trying  to  get  the  most 
possible  good  out  of  these  opportunities. 
5 


66  MILITARY  TRAINING 

Map  Maneuvers. — Where  out-door  work  in  varied 
terrain  is  impracticable,  and  even  as  a  preparation  for  it 
where  time  admits,  it  is  most  helpful  and  interesting  to 
conduct  these  tactical  exercises  theoretically  on  a  large 
scale  map,  or  other  representation  of  the  actual  ground. 
It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book  to  go  into  the  details 
of  this  kind  of  instruction.  It  can  be  properly  given  only 
by  an  instructor  who  has  fitted  himself  for  it.  He  can  do 
this  by  studying  Sayre's  "  Map  Maneuvers  and  Tactical 
Rides,"  by  practice,  and  by  attempting  at  first  only  the 
simplest  situations.  Each  captain  should  add  this 
ability  to  his  repertoire. 

The  most  training  can  be  given  in  the  "  one  sided 
maneuver,"  where  the  instructor  may  carry  the  situation 
along  rapidly,  introducing  phases  at  will  to  illustrate  any 
desired  tactical  point,  and  to  test  the  men's  ability  in 
whatever  he  desires.  This  is  an  excellent  way  to  give  train- 
ing in  patrolling,  as  so  many  situations  may  be  introduced 
in  a  short  time,  especially  good  for  training  in  deciding 
whether  messages  should  be  sent,  and  how,  and  in  giving 
much  practice  in  actually  writing  them.  In  this  one  sided 
maneuver  it  is  also  possible  to  discuss  and  criticize  each 
step  as  it  occurs — a  great  advantage,  not  possible  in  the 
two  sided,  where  all  criticism  must  be  left  till  the  end, 
when  much  is  forgotten. 

I  have  found  by  experience  that  for  instructing  a  class 
larger  than  a  half  dozen,  the  best  way  is  to  hang  the 
large  scale  map  on  a  side  wall,  see  that  it  is  properly 
lighted,  and  then  group  the  class  sitting  in  a  close  semi- 
circle before  it.  As  many  as  thirty  can  thus  be  engaged 
simultaneously,  and  by  calling  first  one  then  another  to 
command  the  situations  as  they  arise,  all  are  kept  keenly 
interested. 

To  do  this,  requires  for  all  an  ability  to  read  maps  with 
facility.  This  is  discussed  in  a  later  chapter.  But  maps 
are  not  absolutely  necessary.  Baden-Powell  describes 
representing  the  terrain  for  a  map  problem,  by  spreading 
his  horse  cover  on  the  ground,  and  putting  underneath  dif- 


TRAINING  FOR  IMMEDIATE  WAR  67 

ferent  sized  stones,  turfs,  etc.,  arranged  to  make  the 
different  hills  and  valleys  that  he  wanted.  You  may  de- 
vise an  equivalent.  A  large  sand  table  can  be  made  into 
a  relief  map  for  this  practice.  But  the  best  instruction  to 
the  most  men  will  be  given  on  the  map  hung  where  all 
may  see  it  equally  well.  The  Gettysburg  map,  12  inches 
to  the  mile,  mounted  on  muslin,  is  designed  for  this,  and 
may  be  had  from  the  Book  Department,  Army  Service 
Schools,  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas. 

Training  for  Immediate  War. — This  differs  from 
peace  training,  mostly  in  intensity.  It  offers  far  greater 
advantages,  but  demands  far  quicker  results..  You  will 
be  camped  in  the  country,  it  is  hoped  in  surroundings 
suitable  to  field  exercises.  The  men  will  be  tremendously 
keen,  for  each  will  realize  the  need  of  being  the  best  sol- 
dier he  is  capable  of  becoming.  Training  will  be  the  one 
only  thought  of  all,  the  distractions  of  civil  pursuits  hav- 
ing been  definitely  put  aside.  Physical  training,  so  difficult 
to  keep  up  in  peace  time,  will  be  the  shibboleth  of  all.  En- 
thusiasm will  be  high,  unless  dampened  by  the  stupidity  of 
leaders  devoid  of  soul  and  imagination.  It  will  in  fact 
be  a  veritable  drill  heaven  for  those  who  have  learned  the 
game,  and  can  enter  into  Its  spirit. 

Here  the  program  for  systematic  progressive  work 
recommended  for  peace  training,  becomes  an  absolute 
necessity.  You  will  get  nowhere  without  it.  And  the 
system  for  preliminary  training  of  officers  and  noncom- 
missioned officers  together  in  a  squad,  keeping  just  in 
advance  of  the  work  given  the  men,  is  of  great  value  at 
first.  Men  will  come  from  different  schools  of  training, 
and  from  none.  This  method  quickly  brings  them  to  the 
uniform  standard  desired  by  the  commander.  In  or- 
ganizing the  43rd  U.  S.  Volunteers  in  1899,  for  the  first 
hour  each  morning  we  had  all  the  officers  and  noncommis- 
sioned officers  of  the  regiment,  assembled  into  one  large 
company,  the  captains  as  sergeants,  the  lieutenants  as 
corporals,  and  the  noncommissioned  officers  as  privates. 


68  MILITARY  TRAINING 

We  drilled  and  instructed  this  company  during  that  hour 
in  the  chosen  work  for  that  day,  and  then  required  them 
to  give  during  the  day  exactly  the  same  work  to  their  men, 
and  none  other.  This  produced  uniformity  and  quick 
results,  and  was  good  so  far.  But  to-day  I  would  ap- 
preciate the  need  for  more  development  of  initiative,  and 
would  confine  it  to  preliminary  drills  only,  till  I  was  sure 
that  all  were  working  along  the  same  lines.  But  in  this, 
each  commanding  officer,  considering  first  his  own  per- 
sonality and  capacities,  and  then  his  particular  problem  in 
training,  must  bring  to  its  solution  the  best  methods  at 
his  command. 

In  Conclusion. — It  is  admitted  that  the  peace  training 
of  each  command  must  be  influenced  by  environment.  It 
is  even  possible  that  some  organizations  may  never  get 
practice  in  real  ground,  until  mobilized  for  war.  It  is 
hoped,  however,  that  each  will  have  caught  such  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  necessity  for  these  various  kinds  of 
training,  that  real  effort  will  be  made  to  get  them  for  their 
men.  In  reality  it  is  generally  the  lack  of  mental  punch, 
of  willingness  to  bestir  themselves,  that  keeps  most  com- 
manders from  giving  their  men  proper  training.  They 
have  been  in  uniform  too  long,  or  lack  the  imagination  and 
keenness  of  youth,  which  would  make  them  discard  old 
fogy  ideas  of  stupid  drills,  and  step  out  and  make  training 
what  it  should  be. 

Let  these  things  be  remembered: 

That  we  are  attempting  to  accomplish  in  short  periods, 
the  equivalent  of  two  years'  solid  training. 

That  this  system  demands  our  using  the  intelligence  of 
the  men,  in  requiring  a  large  degree  of  self-instruction ; 
and  our  depending  on  punch,  and  speed,  and  clever  direc- 
tion, to  develop  the  fighting  qualities,  rather  than  on  old 
time  peace  methods  of  long  continued  drill. 

That  the  training  is  to  make  resourceful  self-reliant 
men,  rather  than  automatons,  and  must  therefore  include 
much  practical  work  in  actual  conditions. 

That  the  close  order  drill  therefore  becomes  little  more 


CONCLUSION  69 

than  a  sharp  practice  of  well  known  movements  for  de- 
veloping discipline,  in  which  the  instructor  is  the  ruthless 
infallible  coach;  and  that  he  may  accomplish  this  only  by 
enlisting  the  intelligent  co-operation  of  the  men. 

Remember  that  the  men  start  keenly  interested.  This 
interest  must  be  fed,  not  killed  by  stupid  drills.  Tell 
them  that  drill  is  for  practice;  and  that  they  must  come 
prepared,  so  time  may  be  saved  for  more  interesting  work. 
If  then  some  individual  come  to  drill  unprepared,  throw 
him  out  of  the  squad  as  unfit.  He  will  come  prepared 
next  time,  or  not  at  all — a  gain  for  the  squad  in  either 
case.  But  give  him  a  chance  to  prepare,  by  announcing 
ahead  of  time  short  lessons  for  the  next  period. 

Catch  the  spirit  of  these  various  drills.  Appreciate 
their  relative  values,  and  their  great  need.  You  know 
how  short  is  your  time  for  training,  see  that  none  is 
wasted.  Occupy  every  minute,  and  you  will  still  despair 
of  doing  one  half  enough.  Keep  ahead  of  your  men, 
and  sustain  their  enthusiasm  with  work  that  is  full  of 
punch  and  go,  if  you  have  to  sit  up  all  night  preparing 
for  it. 

You  will  make  mistakes.  The  best  of  us  do.  But  you 
will  not  make  the  same  mistake  twice.  And  thus  you  will 
see  yourself  grow,  and  your  men  grow.  You  will  see 
your  organization  gaining  in  esprit,  and  attaining  a  repu- 
tation for  excellence.  You  will  be  proud  of  your  com- 
pany, and  proud  of  your  captain.  You  will  delight  in 
the  service,  and  really  enjoy  the  details  of  drill  and 
instruction.  Till  finally,  if  called  to  war,  with  what  confi- 
dence in  yourself  and  your  fellows,  with  what  a  morale, 
you  may  go  to  meet  it ! 


CHAPTER  IV 

ORGANIZATION 

The  primary  object  of  organization  is  to  marshall  all 
the  forces  of  the  nation ;  its  millions  of  men  and  thou- 
sands of  horses,  its  railroads  and  auto  transports,  its 
resources  for  munitions  and  every  reservoir  of  supply,  and 
the  brains  and  machinery  for  administering  them ;  so  that 
all  these  forces  may  be  handled  as  a  unit,  all  brought  to 
bear  at  a  given  point  and  time,  as  a  powerful  weapon  in 
the  hands  of  government. 

The  actual  fighting  forces  are  but  the  keen  edge  of 
this  mighty  blade,  whose  sterling  worth  must  depend  on 
the  mass  and  quality  of  the  metal  behind  it,  to  give  force 
to  its  blows  and  to  renew  the  edge  when  worn  away  in 
service.  The  fashioning  of  this  knife,  the  concentrating 
and  properly  ordering  all  our  resources  into  this  mighty 
whole,  the  training  of  intellect  and  will  to  direct  it,  this  is 
the  problem  which  confronts  us. 

When  war  comes  the  life  of  the  nation  is  at  stake,  and 
the  conduct  of  war  will  become  a  life  saving  process.  All 
commercial  and  civil  propositions  become  subordinate, 
railroads,  transports,  factories,  labor,  all  institutions  drop 
their  individual  aspirations,  and  lend  themselves  to  the 
best  interests  of  government.  And  we  must  be  prepared 
to  use  intelligently  these  vast  agencies.  There  will  be  a 
place  for  each  of  their  highly  developed  specialized  ex- 
perts, where  their  peculiar  capacities  can  be  of  inestimable 
service  to  the  nation.  Not  as  members  of  the  active  fight- 
ing machine,  but  as  directing  powers  nearer  the  sources 
of  supply,  they  will  assure  the  arrival  in  the  zone  of  actual 
operations  of  all  those  resources  which  the  trained  army 
officers  will  there  know  how  to  use. 

This  task  of  organization  is  no  myth.  It  is  the  one 
vital  thing  for  the  success  of  our  arms,  and  the  life  of  our- 
nation.  It  is  a  concrete  thing  that  has  got  to  be  accom- 
plished, before  we  may  think  of  calling  ourselves  pre- 
70 


THE  INFANTRY  DIVISION  71 

pared.  It  will  demand  the  best  minds  at  our  disposal, 
the  most  ardent  application  to  the  problem,  and  above  all 
the  loyal  support  of  the  body  politic. 

Organization  has  always  been  the  direct  responsibility 
and  function  of  Congress,  which  has  dictated  all  its  de- 
tails. Its  study  is  a  continuing  function,  emitting  fre- 
quent changes;  sometimes  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
War  College,  for  military  reasons ;  sometimes  the  direct 
action  of  Congress,  for  other  reasons.  As  soldiers,  you 
need  only  a  picture  of  the  general  scheme  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  an  army,  into  which  to  fit  the  part  you  have  chosen ; 
as  citizens,  you  need  a  clear  realization  of  the  fact  that 
organization  is  a  vital  matter  demanding  the  judgment  of 
highly  trained  experts. 

Considering  the  organization  of  an  army  itself,  its 
object  is,  that  all  these  men  and  animals  may  be  fed, 
armed,  equipped,  disciplined  and  transported  at  the  will 
of  the  commander ;  and  above  all  that  they  may  be  fought 
in  battle,  every  ounce  of  all  this  energy  instantly  controlled 
and  directed  by  the  will  of  the  chief.  We  have  seen  how 
the  men  are  grouped  in  training  from  the  squad  up,  and 
how  subordination  welds  them  into  a  loyal  team.  Back 
down  through  these  same  steps,  from  leader  to  subor- 
dinate leader,  comes  the  will  of  the  commanding  general, 
till  the  squad  leaders  have  transmitted  it  to  their  men, 
and  the  whole  machine  is  moving  uniformly,  accurately 
responsive  to  the  master  mind. 

And  no  matter  how  many  men  be  brought  together  in 
one  field  of  operations,  from  a  few  men  working  as  a 
patrol,  to  the  hundreds  of  thousands  when  field  armies  are 
united,  proper  organization  provides,  and  the  principle  of 
subordination  demands,  that  there  shall  always  be  one 
individual,  senior  in  rank  to  all  others  present,  on  whom 
alone  rests  the  entire  responsibility  of  command,  to  whom 
all  others  are  subordinate,  loyally  executing  his  will. 

The  Infantry  Division,  in  our  service,  is  the  proper 
command  for  a  major  general ;  in  foreign  armies,  for  a 
lieutenant  general.     It  is  the  smallest  unit  that  has  even 


72  ORGANIZATION 

the  semblance  of  an  army,  that  may  operate  independently 
containing  in  its  own  organization  a  suitable  proportion 
of  the  various  fighting  arms,  auxiliary  troops,  and  ad- 
ministrative machinery.  In  our  regular  service,  we  have 
none,  except  theoretically,  and  these  are  devoid  of  aero 
squadrons,  auto  transports,  and  cycle  corps,  indispensable 
adjuncts  in  modem  warfare.  I  believe  our  nearest  ap- 
proach to  the  actual  existence  of  such  a  command  is  the 
Division,  National  Guard,  N,  Y.,  which  has  all  its  com- 
ponents,  armed  and  equipped,  quartered  within  a  limited 
area,  and  actively  commanded,  trained,  and  supplied,  by 
an  actual  major  general. 

Composition  of  Divisions  : 
Infantry  Diznsion  Cavalry  Division 

Headquarters,  Headquarters, 

Three  brigades  of  infantry.      Three  brigades  of  cavalry, 
One  regiment  of  cavalry,  One     regiment    of     horse 

One  brigade  of  artillery,  artillery, 

One   pioneer  battalion  en-     One  pioneer  battalion  en- 
gineer troops,  gineer  troops  (mounted). 
One   field   battalion   signal      One   field   battalion   signal 

troops,  troops, 

Trains :  Trains : 

One  ammunition  train,  One  ammunition  train. 

One  supply  train.  One  supply  train. 

One  sanitary  train,  One  sanitary  train. 

One  engineer  train. 
Note. — These  regiments  of  cavalry  and  of  artillery, 
thus  made  part  of  the  Infantry  Division,  are  known  as 
divisional  cavalry,  and  artillery,  as  distinguished   from 
those  arms  operatingly  separately. 

Divisions  are  grouped  for  campaign  into  field  armies, 
the  proper  command  for  a  Lieutenant  General.  These 
field  armies,  when  concentrated  in  one  field  of  operations 
constitute  an  army,  commanded  by  a  General.  We  are  now 
moving  in  the  realm  of  dreams,  having  no  field  armies  in 
the  United  States,  nor  lieutenant  generals  to  command 
them ;  while  generals  are  all  but  unknown  in  our  history. 


THE  BRIGADE  AND  REGIMENT  73 

It  has  ever  been  a  deplorable  characteristic  of  ours,  to 
shrink  from  giving  to  our  higher  commanders  the  rank 
commensurate  with  their  responsibilities.  In  the  Civil 
War,  General  Grant,  exercising  the  command  of  a  Field 
Marshal  of  France,  with  all  his  tremendous  responsibili- 
ties, held  but  the  rank  of  a  corps  commander.  So  all  the 
great  generals  of  that  war,  denied  proper  rank,  were 
forced  to  command  generals  of  equal  grade,  and  there- 
fore often  forced  to  combat  jealousy  and  lack  of  loyalty 
from  within,  as  well  as  the  enemy  from  without.  Thus 
ever  have  our  people,  remembering  the  heel  of  monarchial 
oppression,  but  unfearful  of  the  rule  of  the  kings  of 
finance,  shrunk  from  full  observance  of  the  principles  of 
organization  and  subordination,  and  willingly  paid  the 
costs  of  battle  inefficiency,  rather  than  bestow  proper 
rank  and  title  on  worthy  soldiers. 

The  Brigade,  proper  command  for  a  brigadier  general, 
h  composed  of  troops  of  the  same  arm:  three  regiments, 
if  infantry;  two  regiments,  cavalry  or  artillery.  It  may 
be  engaged  independently  in  some  small  affair,  when  it  is 
designated  as  detached,  and  may  have  other  troops,  as  a 
cavalry  squadron,  temporarily  attached  for  duty  with  it. 

The  Regiment,  proper  command  for  a  colonel,  is 
composed  of  three  battalions,  each  commanded  by  a  major. 
Each  battalion  has  four  companies,  commanded  by  cap- 
tains. The  regiment  is  the  largest  permanent  unit,  and 
hence  is  the  one  organization  of  our  service  about  which 
honorable  traditions  may  cling,  in  which  esprit  may  be 
fostered  for  its  future  good. 

Greater  efficiency  would  demand  that  regiments  be 
localised,  and  perhaps  named  for  their  localities.  Here, 
in  peace  time,  men  could  serve  with  the  colors,  ctill  keep- 
ing touch  with  home  interests,  able  to  resume  their  places 
in  civil  life  at  the  expiration  of  their  service ;  while  in  war 
time,  local  pride  in  the  regiment  and  acquaintance  with  its 
personnel,  would  supply  needed  recruits ;  and  assure 
kindly  care  for  those  who  had  been  invalided  home. 

Depot  Battalions. — The  casualties  of  active  service, 


74  ORGANIZATION 

will  be  continually  reducing  the  number  of  effective  men 
with  the  colors.  In  the  Civil  War,  regiments  were  often 
reduced  to  but  two  or  three  hundred  men.  This  reduc- 
tion is  provided  for  in  all  foreign  armies  by  the  organiza- 
tion in  each  regiment  of  a  home  battalion,  fully  officered, 
and  maintained  in  the  locality  whence  the  regiment  was 
recruited.  Here,  invalided  officers  and  men  come  from 
the  front  for  recuperation ;  and  fresh  recruits  and  re- 
mounts are  received,  and  trained  for  service  with  the 
colors.  Whenever  effective  fighting  strength  is  reduced, 
the  necessary  draft  is  forwarded  to  restore  it.  These  new 
men  join  experienced  comrades,  from  whom  they  quickly 
learn  the  game;  they  come  into  an  atmosphere  of  assur- 
ance, under  officers  who  have  made  reputations.  They 
quickly  absorb  traditions  and  esprit  of  the  veterans,  and, 
enveloped  in  this  favorable  environment,  are  carried 
through  their  first  exj>eriences  with  reasonable  courage. 

It  is  well  to  make  this  picture  clear,  that  you  may  better 
appreciate  the  painful  features  of  its  reverse,  found  in  our 
service,  and  made  necessary  by  the  volunteer  system,  in 
order  to  get  the  men  for  our  war.  Old  regiments  could 
not  be  recruited.  It  was  necessary  to  commission  new 
officers  to  get  more  men.  Hence,  while  experienced  of- 
ficers and  men  were  serving  in  dwindling  regiments,  these 
green  regiments  constantly  appeared  at  the  front,  officers 
and  men  totally  unfit  through  lack  of  training.  Think 
what  that  meant  of  wasted  lives  through  lack  of  proper 
care,  wasted  lives  in  battle  for  want  of  experienced  leaders, 
prolonged  warfare  through  lack  of  trained  armies  to  bring 
it  to  a  close,  and,  ever  towering  higher  and  higher,  the 
hundreds  of  millions  paid  in  pensions !  None  but  a  nation 
of  unbounded  wealth,  would  dare  a  policy  so  extravagant ; 
none  but  the  heedless  would  continue  one  so  dangerous. 

New  York  has  provided  by  state  law  for  these  depot 
units  in  her  organizations  of  the  National  Guard.  It  is 
hoped  that  this  enlightened  step  may  prove  an  inspiration 
to  Congress. 

The  Company  is  the  largest  one-man  command  in 


THE  STAFF  75 

which  the  chief  deals  directly  with  the  men.  Though  the 
captain,  for  the  sake  of  efficiency  and  training,  deals 
largely  through  his  lieutenants  and  squad  leaders,  he  is 
still  directly  responsible  for  everything  within  the  organi- 
zation, food,  clothing,  health,  training,  and  equipment. 
These  enlisted  men  in  the  companies,  are  really  the  army; 
and  the  excellence  of  an  army  is  made  or  marred,  depend- 
ing on  the  faithfulness  and  intelligence  shown  by  the 
company  commanders  in  training  their  men.  And  the 
highest  efficiency  has  been  attained  in  those  armies  in 
which  the  greatest  latitude  has  been  allowed  the  company 
commanders  in  their  methods  of  training,  while  they  have 
been  held  to  the  strictest  accountability  for  results. 

The  Staff. — We  have  been  considering  the  line  of  the 
army,  its  mobile  fighting  forces.  Also  of  the  line,  and 
equally  important  for  the  safety  of  the  nation,  are  its 
Coast  Defenses,  discussed  in  Chapter  VIII ;  while  most 
important  for  consideration,  is  The  Staff,  with  its  depart- 
ments of  administration  and  supply.  Here  are  the  vitals 
of  the  whole  establishment.  The  standard  of  work  done 
here  will  determine  the  whole  question  of  success  or  fail- 
ure for  our  arms.  To  facilitate  the  work  of  the  staff,  is 
the  most  delicate  and  important  function  of  Organization. 

No  people  may  hope  to  conduct  a  successful  war,  until 
all  the  resources  of  the  nation  are  properly  marshalled 
under  one  controlling  mind,  which  can  make  them  all 
available  for  efficient  service  at  the  needed  time  and  place. 
This  mind  is  the  General  Staff.  Its  work  demands  the 
best  abilities  of  highly  trained  experts.  To  training  for 
this,  able  officers  unstintingly  devote  their  highest  faculties. 

Napoleon  said  "  an  army  marches  on  its  stomach," 
meaning  it  could  not  go  far  without  supplies.  And  this  is 
equally  true  to-day.  But  the  railroads,  electricity,  auto 
transports  and  aeroplanes,  have  added  such  an  element  of 
speed,  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  the  picture.  Not 
only  have  quick  information  and  quick  movement  compli- 
cated the  problem,  but  the  present  vastness  of  all  the 
various  forces  employed  has  made  the  conduct  of  war  an 


76  ORGANIZATION 

intricate  science,  quite  beyond  the  brain  capacity  of  even 
a  Napoleon.  War  may  no  longer  be  conducted  by  a 
General  in  Chief.  It  must  be  prepared  for  and  directed 
in  detail  by  the  composite  mind  of  the  General  Staff. 

In  modern  war  the  clever  brain  of  the  General  Staff 
masses  the  national  forces  at  the  strategic  point,  and  often 
the  contest  is  decided  without  firing  a  shot.  And  not  only 
does  it  discover  the  advantage  of  massing  them  there,  but 
it  must  provide  the  forces,  and  the  means  of  putting  them 
there.  It  knows  the  policies  of  the  nation,  studies  the 
forces  working  in  the  world's  arena,  and  plans  to  meet 
foreseen  contingencies.  It  learns  the  resources  of  a 
threatening  enemy ;  knows  our  own,  and  has  them  well  in 
hand  for  use  in  case  of  need.  This  requires  that  all  de- 
partments of  supply  be  under  this  one  directing  mind  ;  and 
that  this  mind  be  authorized  to  make  necessary  provision 
without  arguing  from  the  housetops.  Thus  only  will  the 
emergency  find  us  ready  to  meet  it ;  and  thus  only  by  co- 
ordination in  the  sole  hands  of  experts  may  we  hope  for 
efficiency  and  economy  in  administration.  This  is  our 
first  and  greatest  need  in  Organization. 

Our  Land  Forces. — They  consist  at  this  writing,  of  a 
few  thousands  of  regulars,  of  about  one  hundred  thousand 
more  or  less  efficient  "  organized  militia,"  and  potentially 
of  the  unorganized  resources  of  a  mighty  nation.  What 
this  Congress  will  do  toward  organizing  these  resources, 
and  putting  us  on  a  plane  of  equality  for  defense  with  at 
least  Switzerland,  remains  to  be  seen.  But  it  will  surely 
take  the  first  step ;  and  in  the  end  will  do  as  much  as  our 
people  demand.  Intelligent  opinion  is  beginning  to  ap- 
preciate the  follies  of  our  past,  and  great  need  of  our 
present ;  and  to  demand  intelligent  action  for  our  future. 

It  were  vain  to  attempt  to  foresee  this  action.  But, 
as  thoughtful  men  study  the  question,  and  fearlessly  follow 
through  to  its  logical  solution,  they  will  realize  certain 
truths,  and,  inevitably  arrive  at  certain  conclusions : 

That  matters  of  army  organization  and  supply,  within 
limits  fixed  by  yearly  congressional  appropriation,  should 


OUR  LAND  FORCES  77 

in  all  their  details  be  determined  solely  by  trained  General 
Staff  experts ;  and  for  military,  not  political  reasons. 

That  we  must  keep  enough  professional  soldiers  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  ordinary  times,  without  interfer- 
ence with  the  civilian's  pursuits  or  any  upheaval  of 
business.  Had  we  had  one  hundred  thousand  available 
soldiers  in  1898,  they  could  have  handled  that  situation  in 
the  day's  work,  without  any  disturbance  to  business.  In- 
stead, the  whole  country  rocked,  while  lawyers  and 
bankers  left  their  desks,  and  farmers  and  business  men 
their  occupations,  to  go  and  die  in  vain  beds  of  sickness, 
or  to  return  after  miserable  months  to  try  to  regain  their 
business.     Is  that  a  picture  to  satisfy  wise  statesmanship ! 

We  will  come  to  realize  the  extravagance,  utter  futil- 
ity, and  even  viciousness  of  our  present  volunteer  system ; 
and  how  it  not  only  offends  efficiency,  but  strikes  at  the 
very  roots  of  true  Democracy.  That  manhood  suffrage 
carries  with  it  manhood  obligation.  That  it  is  most  un- 
democratic for  a  citizen  to  elect  whether  or  not  he  will 
prepare  to  defend  his  country  in  need ;  and  that  this  offers 
a  commercial  premium  to  the  selfish  and  disloyal,  who 
may  continue  to  prosecute  their  business,  while  their  loyal 
rivals  must  sacrifice  theirs  for  training  in  peace,  and  fight- 
ing in  war.  That  it  is  not  conducive  to  patriotism  in  the 
breast  of  the  son  of  a  Civil  War  soldier,  to  be  crowded  off 
the  road  to-day  by  the  touring  car  of  his  father's  once 
partner,  who,  while  the  father  lost  his  business  by  going 
to  war,  stayed  at  home  and  amassed  a  fortune  by  manu- 
facturing shoddy  blankets  for  the  men  at  the  front. 

England  and  America  are  the  only  two  nations  on 
Earth  which,  thanks  to  their  volunteer  systems,  find 
themselves  forced  to  resort  to  conscription  in  order  to 
secure  their  citizens'  services  in  war.  In  all  other  nations 
the  duties  of  citizenship  are  universally  recognized,  and 
there  is  no  argument  as  to  giving  military  service  when 
needed.  And  how  genuinely  democratic  is  this  thought 
of  universal  military  service !  This  goes  for  national 
solidarity.     Here  is  no  class  distinction — rich  and  poor. 


78  ORGANIZATION 

employer  and  employee,  all  are  doing  the  same  thing  at 
the  same  time,  training  together  in  the  same  school  of 
fitness  for  national  service. 

And  in  the  end  our  citizens  will  come  to  appreciate 
what  this  democratic  training  under  national  supervision 
will  mean  for  our  youth,  and  through  them  for  the  nation ; 
of  intelligent  patriotism  founded  on  facts  of  history, 
rather  than  on  vain  vaporings  to  make  a  school  text-book 
popular;  of  trained  bodies  with  muscles  co-ordinated  to 
mental  control;  of  discipline  that  brings  self-respect,  re- 
spect for  seniors,  and  obedience  to  authority;  of  clean, 
healthy  bodies,  and  training  in  sanitary  living  taken  into 
the  homes;  in  fact,  of  added  personal  capacity,  efficiency, 
and  clean  citizenship.  When  a  boy  has  once  seriously 
worn  his  country's  service  uniform,  and  has  come  to  ap- 
preciate through  knowledge,  something  of  the  horrors  of 
war,  he  must  become  a  more  thoughtful  citizen,  and  will 
more  surely  interest  himself  in  his  country's  destinies,  go- 
ing to  the  polls  well  informed  to  vote  intelligently. 
■  There  will  be  fewer  stoop  shouldered  youths  lounging 
On  grocery  boxes  at  the  comer  store,  fewer  itinerants 
dodging  work  along  our  highways.  Training  will  have 
given  them  erect  strong  bodies,  and  discipline,  ambition 
and  ability  to  enter  employment  advantageously,  with 
mind  and  muscles  trained  to  execute  with  precision  the 
will  of  their  employers.  When  the  nation  realizes  what  a 
commercial  asset  this  means,  they  will  no  longer  forego  it. 
I  believe  then  that  in  the  end  there  will  come  to  our 
people  that  broad  spirit  of  nationalism,  which,  discarding 
the  narrow  prejudices  of  the  past,  will  decree  for  the 
future  a  wiser  statesmanship,  demanding  federal  super- 
vision of  the  training  of  our  youth,  designed  to  make  them 
appreciate  the  responsibilities  of  citizenship,  and  to  fit 
them  as  men  to  bear  honorably  and  efficiently  feach  his 
part  in  whatever  task  may  confront  us  as  a  nation. 

"  Go  yourselves,  every  man  of  you,  and  stand  in  the  ranks ; 
and  either  a  victory  beyond  all  victories  in  its  glory  awaits  you, 
or  falling,  you  shall  fall  greatly  and  worthy  of  your  past." 

— Appeal  of  Demosthenes. 


CHAPTER  V 
INFANTRY 

"  Modern  combat  demands  the  highest  order  of  train- 
ing, discipHne,  leadership  and  morale  on  the  part  of  the 
infantry. 

"  The  duties  of  the  infantry  are  many  and  difficult. 
All  infantry  must  be  fit  to  cope  with  all  conditions  that 
may  arise.  Modem  war  requires  but  one  kind  of  infantry 
— good  infantry. 

"  The  infantry  must  take  the  offensive  to  gain  decisive 
results. 

"  In  the  local  combats  which  make  up  the  general 
battle  the  better  endurance,  use  of  ground,  fire  efficiency^ 
discipline,  and  training  will  win.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
infantry  to  win  the  local  successes  which  enable  the  com- 
manding general  to  win  the  battle. 

"  The  infantry  must  have  the  tenacity  to  hold  every 
advantage  gained,  the  individual  and  collective  skill  needed 
to  master  the  enemy's  fire,  the  determination  to  close  with 
the  enemy  in  attack,  and  to  meet  him  with  the  bayonet  in 
defense.  Infantry  must  be  trained  to  bear  the  heaviest 
burdens  and  losses,  both  of  combat  and  march. . 

"  Good  infantry  can  defeat  an  enemy  greatly  superior 
in  numbers,  but  lacking  in  training,  discipline,  leadership, 
and  morale." 

The  above  quotations  taken  from  the  Introduction  to 
Part  II,  Infantry  Drill  Regulations  indicate  the  quality 
of  the  infantry  required  for  war.  When  it  is  further 
considered  that  the  infantry  is  not  only  the  most  numerous 
but  the  most  important  arm,  that  it  is  charged  with  the 
main  work  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  that  the  role  of  an 
army,  offensive  or  defensive,  is  determined  by  the  role 
that  may  under  the  particular  circumstances  be  assigned 
to  the  infantry,  the  supreme  importance  of  the  ann  be- 
comes apparent. 

79 


80  INFANTRY 

It  is  the  infantry  soldier,  officer  and  man,  who  must 
bear  the  greatest  stress  of  battle,  and  war  is  more  de- 
pendent for  success  upon  his  individual  action  than  upon 
any  other  factor.  Teaching  him  how  to  fight,  inculcating 
in  him  a  sense  of  discipline,  and  developing  his  morale, 
are  the  purposes  of  preparation  through  training. 

Discipline  is  a  mental  condition  and  means  the  sub- 
ordination of  individual  impulse  to  the  will  of  the  leader-— 
in  other  words,  obedience.  It  ensures  steadiness  and 
makes  team  work  possible. 

Morale  is  a  compound  of  various  human  elements — 
patriotism,  honor,  self-respect,  sense  of  duty,  devotion 
and  self-sacrifice,  courage,  respect  for  comrades,  and  con- 
fidence in  leader — and  manifests  itself  on  the  battlefield 
in  the  unconquerable  determination  to  win  and  firm  belief 
in  your  ability  to  do  so.  Developing  in  the  soldier  these 
mental  qualities — discipline  and  morale — is  quite  as  essen- 
tial as  teaching  him  the  formations  for  fighting,  use  of 
weapon,  etc.,  and  in  the  average  case  requires  more  time. 

When  we  consider  the  infantryman's  weapon  and  his 
method  of  fighting,  the  above  is  readily  understood.  His 
weapon  is  the  rifle  with  a  bayonet;  and  his  methods  of 
action  are  fire,  and  shock.  All  the  power  of  the  weapon 
is  in  the  man  himself.  However  skillful  a  shot  he  may 
have  become  by  training,  his  skill  is  of  no  value  in  battle 
unless  he  obeys  the  orders  of  his  leaders,  and  has  the  calm, 
cool  courage  to  utilize  his  skill  and  to  fire  each  shot  with 
the  determination  to  make  it  a  hit.  Nor  can  the  final  de- 
cision be  brought  about  by  fire  action  alone.  His  other 
method  of  action,  shock,  and  his  other  weapon,  the  bayo- 
net, or  his  willingness  to  employ  them  as  evidenced  by  his 
steady  advance,  are  needed  to  drive  the  enemy  from  posi- 
tion. He  has  no  immovable  gun  to  serve,  there  is  no 
headlong  rush  of  horse  to  carry  him  forward,  but  with 
fixed  determination  to  win  he  slowly  fights  his  way  for- 
ward by  the  eflFort  of  his  own  will.  The  main  object  of 
training  is  to  develop  a  morale  capable  of  meeting  this 
strain. 


INFANTRY  81 

Much  may  be  done  to  improve  the  morale  of  a  com- 
mand by  giving  due  attention  to  those  subjects  vi^hich 
foster  initiative  and  develop  fighting  capacity.  As  war  is 
positive,  not  negative,  the  training  should  likewise  be  posi- 
tive, not  negative.  It  is  easier  to  defend  than  to  attack, 
and  it  is  easiest  to  do  nothing  at  all ;  but  war  cannot  be 
won  by  such  defensive  action,  and  inaction.  Troops  that 
know  how  to  attack  will  know  how  to  defend,  and  undue 
prominence  should  not  be  given  in  training  to  purely 
negative  and  protective  measures. 

The  only  purposes  of  advance  guards  and  outposts  are 
to  bring  the  troops  to  the  field  of  battle  with  the  least 
possible  delay,  and  in  the  best  possible  condition.  They 
are  not  the  end,  but  merely  the  means  to  an  end.  Train- 
ing has  but  one  end  in  view — efficiency  in  the  fight.  While 
the  negative  subjects  cannot  be  entirely  overlooked,  they 
should  be  allotted  time  only  in  accordance  with  their  rela- 
tive importance  and  must  not  be  emphasized  at  the  expense 
of  the  more  important  combat  training. 

The  normal  role  of  infantry  in  war  is  to  attack,  and  it 
should  be  trained  accordingly.  The  great  essentials  for 
infantry  are  that  they  know  how  to  shoot,  how  to  march, 
and  how  to  fight,  and  possess  the  discipline  and  morale  to 
do  these  things.  Instruction  should  be  centered  on  teach- 
ing and  developing  these  essentials. 

•  The  Drill  Regulations  are  the  guide  for  training.  Part 
I  pertains  to  drill  proper,  close  and  extended  order,  and 
deals  with  combat  only  to  the  extent  necessary  to  explain 
the  various  formations  and  the  basic  duties  of  the  different 
commanders.  The  principles  of  combat  are  to  be  found 
in  Part  II.  No  purpose  will  be  served  by  either  a  casual 
reading,, or  a  mere  memorization,  of  this  latter  part  of  the 
regulations.  To  be  of  value,  the  principles  contained 
therein  must  be  conscientiously  studied,  and  their  applica- 
tion understood.  It  is  not  practicable  to  attempt  herein  a 
detailed  explanation  of  those  principles.  That  must  be 
left  to  practice  and  demonstration.  Merely  stating  the 
same  principles  in  other  words  would  confuse  rather  than 


82  INFANTRY  DRILL 

enlighten.  Suffice  to  say  that  nowhere  are  the  underlying 
principles  of  infantry  troop-leading  more  clearly  and  more 
concisely  stated  than  in  Part  II  of  our  Drill  Regulations, 
and  a  careful  preliminary  study  thereof  will  give  to  the 
subsequent  practical  work  on  the  ground  a  definite  purpose 
and  meaning. 

Drill. — The  efficiency  of  an  army  is  measured  by  the 
general  efficiency  of  its  basic  units. 

Drill,  both  close  and  extended  order,  is  treated  in  the 
various  schools  included  in  Part  I  of  the  regulations.  For 
the  purpose  of  progressive  instruction  four  schools  are 
provided : 

School  of  the  Soldier. — The  object  of  this  school  is 
the  instruction  of  the  individual  man  in  the  facings,  steps, 
and  manual  of  arms. 

School  of  the  Squad. — The  movements  in  the  school 
are  designed  to  make  the  squad  a  fixed  unit,  to  give  the 
squad  leader  practice  in  handling  his  men,  and  to  facilitate 
control  and  movement  in  the  subsequent  school  of  the 
company.  The  mechanism  of  the  diflFerent  movements, 
both  close  and  extended  order,  are  taught  in  this  school. 

School  of  the  Company. — ^This  is  the  most  impor- 
tant school,  and  the  one  wherein  the  soldier  receives  most 
of  his  instruction  and  training.  The  instruction  is  carried 
on  progressively.  First  comes  close  order,  intended  to 
teach  the  men  orderly  movement  and  to  accustom  them 
to  the  firm  control  of  their  leaders.  Next  is  the  extended 
order  in  which  the  mechanism  of  the  deployments  and  of 
the  fighting  formations  are  taught.  Finally  by  means  of 
field  exercises,  individual  and  collective  training  is  given 
in  adapting  measures  and  formations  to  the  changing 
conditions  of  situation  and  terrain. 

School  of  the  Battalion. — The  battalion  is  pri- 
marily a  tactical  unit  and  instruction  therein  is  mostly  of 
a  tactical  nature. 

The  drill  formations  in  the  various  schools  are  so  fully 
described  in  the  regulations  that  additional  explanation  as 
to  the  execution  of  particular  movements  is  unnecessary. 


INFANTRY  DRILL  83 

Further  explanation  will,  however,  be  given  concerning 
certain  rules  and  movements  which  are  so  fundamental  in 
character  that  an  early  understanding  of  their  general 
application  will  be  of  assistance  in  acquiring  a  working 
knowledge  of  the  subject  as  a  whole.  Attention  will  also 
be  called  to  other  paragraphs,  either  to  emphasize  their 
importance,  or  because  experience  has  shown  that  in  the 
execution  of  the  movements  therein  prescribed  there  is  a 
tendency  to  commit  certain  well  defined  errors.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  the  following  comments  and  explana- 
tions in  no  way  modify  or  replace  the  regulations,  but 
are  intended  only  as  a  help  in  making  clear  the  meaning, 
intent,  and  application  of  certain  paragraphs.  Nor  is  it 
to  be  assumed  that  those  paragraphs  which  are  not  spe- 
cially mentioned  are  unimportant.  The  paragraphs  of 
Part  I  appropriate  for  the  individual  study  of  each  grade 
within  the  company  are  as  follows : 

Privates  and  Corporals  to  include  the  School  of  the 
Squad,  paragraphs  1-158. 

Sergeants  and  Lieutenants  to  include  the  School  of  the 
Company,  paragraphs  1-257. 

Captains  to  include  the  School  of  the  Battalion,  para- 
graphs 1-326. 

Par.  6  (a) -(b). — The  distinctions  between  close  and 
extended  order  drills  have  been  fully  explained  in  Chap- 
ter III.  It  is  essential  that  the  purpose  of  each  of  these 
drills  and  the  distinction  between  them  be  understood, 
and  then  kept  in  mind,  in  order  that  the  instructor  may 
adapt  his  instruction  to  the  specific  needs  of  his  command. 
Troops  must  have  close  order  before  they  are  ready  for 
extended  order.  Neither  is  to  be  neglected  nor  slighted. 
However,  when  the  ends  sought  by  either  have  been  at- 
tained, then  the  instruction  should  progress  to  other  work. 

Par.  8. — Attention  to  the  rules  contained  in  this  para- 
graph will  be  of  assistance  in  remembering  the  various 
commands  and  their  sequence.  Examples  illustrating  ( i )  : 

I.  Take  interval,  2.  To  the  right,  3.  MARCH. 


84  INFANTRY  DRILL 

I.  Column  of  squads,  first  company,  squads  right, 
2.  MARCH. 

Note  the  arrangement  of  the  elements  of  these  commands 
— (a)  Description  of  the  movement  (Take  interval,  Col- 
umn of  squads)  ;  (b)  How  executed  or  on  what  element 
executed  (To  the  right,  First  Company,  etc.). 

Examples  illustrating  (2)  : 

I.  Squads  right,  2.  MARCH. 

I.  Platoons  right  front  into  line,  2.  MARCH. 

I.  Companies  column  right,  2.  MARCH. 

Note  the  arrangement  here:  (a)  The  designation 
of  the  sub-divisions  (Squads,  Platoons,  Companies)  ; 
(b)  the  movement  to  be  executed  (right,  right  front  into 
Hne,  column  right). 

Par.  16. — Observe  that  these  rules  are  general  and 
serve  to  determine  the  guide  for  all  formations. 

Par.  17. — The  provisions  of  this  paragraph  are 
fundamental  and  constitute  the  essence  of  most  close 
order  movements.  A  subdivision  is  a  squad  or  platoon 
of  a  company,  etc.  In  forming  line  from  a  column  of 
such  subdivisions,  or  in  forming  a  column  of  such  sub- 
divisions from  line,  the  turn  by  each  subdivision  is  made 
on  a  fixed  pivot.  That  is  the  pivot  man  of  each  subdivi- 
sion faces  to  the  right  (left)  in  marching  and  then  marks 
time  until  the  man  on  the  opposite  flank  of  the  subdivi- 
sion is  abreast  of  him. 

Examples:   Squads  right,  Platoons  right,  etc. 

The  turn  on  the  moving  pivot  is  used  by  subdivisions 
of  a  column  in  executing  changes  of  direction.  In  this 
case  the  pivot  man  of  each  subdivision  faces  to  the  right 
(left)  in  marching  and  takes  the  half  step. 

Examples:  Each  rank  of  each  squad  in  executing 
"  column  right "  or  *'  column  left "  when  in  column  of 
squads.  Executing  changes  of  direction  when  in  column 
of  platoons  or  column  of  companies. 

Par.  22. — The  file-closers  can  add  materially  to  the 
progress  and  success  of  the  drill  if  they  will  fully  perform 


INFANTRY  DRILL  85 

their  duties  as  indicated  in  the  last  section  of  this 
paragraph. 

Par.  35. — Comply  strictly  with  the  spirit  of  this  para- 
graph. Of  course  there  is  no  limit  to  the  number  of 
signals  that  can  be  devised,  as  vocal  speech  may  be  entirely 
replaced  by  sign  language.  Devising  and  practising  a 
multiplicity  of  signals  for  use  under  conditions  and  in 
situations  where  the  voice  can  be  used  is  a  waste  of  time. 
They  are  less  reliable  than  the  voice.  Moreover  having 
too  many  signals  renders  less  certain  a  definite  and  unfail- 
ing understanding  of  the  few  really  essential  ones  pre- 
scribed in  paragraphs  42-43. 

Pars.  42-43. — The  whistle  and  arm  signals  herein  pre- 
scribed must  be  learned  by  every  member  of  the  company, 
commissioned  and  enlisted,  and  then  employed  with  such 
frequency  as  to  secure  unfailing  certainty  of  understand- 
ing and  execution.  Read  carefully  the  description  of 
each  signal  as  given  in  the  text  and  then  execute  exactly 
as  prescribed. 

Pars.  45-46. — The  use  of  these  flags  for  the  purposes 
indicated  has  many  practical  advantages,  and  everyone 
should  learn  the  flags  of  the  various  organizations.  Note 
the  relation  between  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  com- 
panies, A,  B,  C,  etc.,  and  the  sequence  of  colors,  red, 
white,  blue,  and  the  identification  of  organization  with 
flag  becomes  simple  and  easy  to  remember. 

Par.  60. — The  practice  of  continually  indicating  the 
cadence  by  counting  or  "  hepping  "  is  to  be  avoided.  As 
early  as  possible  the  men  must  be  taught  to  help  them- 
selves in  this  matter  of  keeping  the  prescribed  cadence  in 
mind,  and,  if  necessary,  to  count  to  themselves.  Constant 
counting  or  "  hepping  "  by  the  instructor  and  file-closers 
is  wrong  in  principle  as  it  relieves  the  men  in  ranks  from 
individual  responsibility  for  attention  and  effort.  The  chief 
merit  of  close  order  drill  is  the  discipline  resulting  from 
the  strict  attention  required.  Relieve  the  men  from  the 
necessity  for  attention,  and  but  little  benefit  results  from 
the  drill. 


86  INFANTRY  DRILL 

Par.  62. — This  shifting  of  the  weight  of  the  body  to 
the  right  leg  at  the  preparatory  command  should  be  accom- 
plished by  the  soldier  without  perceptible  change  in  posi- 
tion, and  then  at  the  command  march  the  left  foot  should 
be  unhesitatingly  carried  forward  the  full  distance  of 
thirty  inches.  While  this  is  one  of  the  simplest  move- 
ments in  the  drill  book,  lack  of  precision  in  its  execution  is 
responsible  for  much  raggedness  in  close  order  drill. 
Two  common  faults  are : 

a.  The  men  sway  or  lean  forward  at  the  preparatory 
command,  partially  losing  balance. 

b.  At  the  command  march,  instead  of  promptly  step- 
ping off  with  a  thirty  inch  step,  they  take  one  or  two  short, 
hesitating  steps,  at  once  resulting  in  lack  of  alignment  and 
some  of  the  men  being  out  of  step. 

Attention  to  these  details  from  the  start  and  before 
bad  habits  have  been  acquired  will  materially  contribute 
to  the  precise  and  smart  appearance  of  the  drill. 

Par.  74. — In  the  care  of  the  rifle,  serviceability  for  the 
purpose  for  which  intended — accurate  shooting — is  the 
controlling  factor.  Like  any  other  piece  of  mechanism  it 
should  be  handled  carefully  and  kept  cleaned  and  oiled. 
The  barrel  should  always  be  cleaned  from  the  chamber, 
never  from  the  muzzle. 

Pars.  101-104. — The  squad  is  the  basis  of  organiza- 
tion and  its  importance  should  be  recognized  from  the 
start.  The  men  should  be  taught  to  look  to  their  squad 
leaders  for  advice,  assistance,  and  instructions  under  all 
circumstances.  On  the  other  hand,  the  development  of 
efficient  squad  leaders  requires  that  the  responsibilities  in- 
dicated in  paragraph  loi  be  placed  upon  them. 

In  grouping  the  squad,  place  the  permanent  substitute 
squad  leader  as  number  four  in  the  rear  rank. 

Par.  106. — The  distance  between  ranks  both  in  line 
and  in  column  is  forty  inches,  measured  from  the  back  of 
the  man  in  front  to  the  breast  of  the  man  in  rear.  The 
interval  between  men  is  four  inches  and  is  measured  from 
elbow  to  elbow.     The  inclination  is  to  take  more  than  the 


INFANTRY  DRILL  87 

forty  inches  distance  and  less  than  the  four  inches  in- 
terval. Accuracy  in  the  preservation  of  both  distance 
and  interval  is  necessary  in  order  to  have  any  degree  of 
precision  in  the  drill. 

Par.  II 8. — In  the  execution  of  this  movement  there 
is  a  tendency  for  the  pivot  man,  after  facing  to  the  right 
(left)  in  marching,  to  take  steps  longer  than  the  prescribed 
half  step  of  fifteen  inches,  and  to  resume  the  full  step 
before  the  man  on  the  marching  flank  has  had  time  to 
complete  the  turn.  This  leads  to  the  man  on  the  marching 
flank  either  increasing  the  length  of  his  step  beyond  the 
prescribed  thirty  inches,  or  increasing  the  cadence,  or 
both,  in  order  to  come  up  with  the  pivot  man.  All  of 
which  gives  the  appearance  of  undue  haste  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  movement. 

The  man  on  the  pivot  must  be  cautioned  to  take  the 
half  step  and  no  more,  and  to  glance  towards  the  marching 
flank  in  order  that  the  full  step  be  not  resumed  before  the 
turn  is  completed  by  the  entire  rank.  The  man  on  the 
marching  flank  must  be  cautioned  against  increasing  either 
the  cadence  or  the  length  of  the  step  or  in  any  way 
improperly  hastening  the  completion  of  the  movement. 

Par.  iig. — A  common  tendency  in  this  movement  is 
a  failure  of  the  pivot  man  to  mark  time  strictly  in  place 
after  facing  to  the  right  (left)  in  marching.  The  man 
on  the  marching  flank  is  inclined  to  hasten  the  completion 
of  the  movement  as  indicated  in  the  paragraph  above. 

This  movement  and  the  one  prescribed  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  are  fundamental  as  they  constitute  the  basis  of 
most  close  order  movements. 

In  connection  with  both  paragraphs  reference  should 
be  had,  to  paragraph  17  and  the  explanations  thereof. 

Par.  124. — Observe  that  the  deployment  is  made  at  a 
run.  Note  also  the  interval  of  one  half  pace  (15  inches) 
between  skirmishers.  Frequently  the  skirmishers  take 
too  wide  intervals.  The  necessity  for  getting  sufficient 
rifles  on  the  line  to  secure  fire  superiority  fequires 
economy  of  space  on  the  battle  front,  and  the  interval  of 


88  INFANTRY  DRILL 

fifteen  inches,  which  is  sufficient  to  allow  the  men  freedom 
of  motion  in  handling  their  pieces,  must  not  be  exceeded 
unless  deployment  at  increased  intervals  (Par.  126)  is 
specifically  ordered. 

When  deployed  the  men  march  at  ease,  but  this  does 
not  permit  talking. 

Pars.  152-156. — The  underlying  principle  here  is  that 
ability  to  fire  effectively  upon  the  enemy  is  the  first  con- 
sideration, and  then  cover.  Do  not  reverse  the  principle 
and  permit  such  use  of  cover  as  to  interfere  with  efficient 
fire. 

Par.  168. — Last  clause.  Note  that  the  alignment  in 
each  rank  is  towards  the  side  opposite  the  file  closers.  The 
man  on  that  flank  is  responsible  for  maintaining  accurately 
the  distance  of  forty  inches  from  the  man  in  his  front. 

Par.  175. — The  fundamental  principle  of  alignment  is 
that  the  instructor  promptly  establish  three  or  four  men 
at  the  base  on  the  desired  line.  The  other  men  will  then 
be  able  quickly  to  align  themselves  on  such  base. 

Pars.  176-184. — xA.ll  of  these  movements  are  essenti- 
ally combinations  of  the  movements  prescribed  in  para- 
graphs 118-119,  and  the  same  general  remarks  apply. 

Again  refer  to  paragraph  17. 

Par.  191. — The  requirement  "  the  ranks  cover  and 
preserve  their  distance  "  should  be  strictly  enforced.  The 
command  or  signal  attention  should  find  every  man  in 
his  proper  relative  position  in  the  column.  No  running 
and  closing  up  should  be  necessary.  The  tendency  is  for 
the  ranks  gradually  to  take  more  than  the  prescribed  forty 
inches  distance. 

With  a  body  of  troops  no  larger  than  a  company,  the 
practical  importance  of  this  matter  of  elongation  is  not  so 
apparent,  as  an  elongation  of  say  forty  per  cent,  would 
lengthen  the  column  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and 
five  yards,  and  increase  the  time  required  for  deployment 
by  possibly  a  minute. 

However  this  same  percentage  applied  to  a  division, 
the  combatant  part  of  which  forms  a  column  ten  miles 


INFANTRY  DRILL  89 

long,  results  in  an  elongation  of  four  miles.  Not  only  has 
such  elongation  added  greatly  to  the  fatigue  of  the  march, 
especially  for  the  rear  units,  but  it  has  materially  increased 
the  time  required  fov  deployment  on  the  head  of  the 
column. 

Bad  habits  once  acquired  are  difficult  to  overcome,  and 
troops  should  from  the  start  be  trained  to  preserve  the 
prescribed  distance  when  marching  at  route  step. 

Par.  206. — The  corporals  are  inclined  to  overestimate 
the  front  occupied  by  a  squad  when  deployed,  and  in  lead- 
ing their  squads  on  the  line  to  take  too  much  interval  from 
the  next  preceding  squad.  This  results  in  gaps  in  the  line 
between  the  squads,  compelling  the  skirmishers  to  "  roll 
over,"  or  otherwise  close  in  to  the  proper  interval  of  one 
half  pace.  For  the  reasons  given  in  paragraph  124  the 
interval  of  one  half  pace  must  not  be  exceeded. 

Par.  222. — The  men  must  be  trained  to  hold  them- 
selves Hat  until  the  command  "  Follow  me  "  is  given.  You 
must  repress  the  natural  inclination  of  the  skirmishers  to 
shift  the  positions  of  their  bodies,  and  to  get  upon  their 
hands  and  knees  at  the  preparatory  instructions  for  a  rush. 
Any  such  preliminary  movements  may  serve  to  warn  the 
enemy  that  a  rush  is  about  to  start,  and  give  him  time  to 
take  the  necessary  measures  for  directing  an  increased  fire 
against  each  rush  during  the  time  the  men  are  on  their 
feet  and  necessarily  presenting  larger  targets.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  these  rushes  are  initiated  without  "  notice  " 
to  the  enemy,  he  does  not  have  time  to  effect  any  unusual 
concentration  of  fire  against  them. 

Nor  should  the  men  bunch  as  they  rush  forward. 
While  it  is  impracticable  for  men  running  at  top  speed 
across  broken  ground  to  keep  a  straight  line,  they  can  and 
should  avoid  so  bunching  as  to  get  directly  in  rear  of  one 
another,  as  in  this  latter  formation  one  bullet  may  disable 
two  or  more  men,  thus  uselessly  multiplying  losses. 

Pars.  232-257, 303-304,  307-314,  400-419,  432-434. 442, 
458-462. — In  these  paragraphs  are  found  the  rules  and 


90  INFANTRY 

principles  pertaining  to  Fire  Direction,  Fire  Control,  Fire 
Discipline,  the  Fire  Fight,  and  Fire  Superiority. 

As  effective  rifle  fire  is  essential  to  victory,  the  impor- 
tance of  the  above  subjects  to  the  infantryman  needs  no 
comment  except  to  emphasize  the  necessity  for  a  careful 
study  of  the  paragraphs  enumerated.  The  intent  and 
meaning  of  the  several  paragraphs  are  so  clear,  and  the 
discussion  so  complete,  that  explanation  thereof  is  un- 
necessary. On  the  other  hand,  a  summary  of  the  subject 
would  exclude  matters  of  importance.  In  order,  how- 
ever, that  the  mechanism  of  control  in  the  firings  may  be 
thoroughly  understood,  the  following  review  of  the  duties 
of  the  various  grades  within  the  company  is  given: 

Captain. — The  captain  directs  the  fire  of  his  company. 
He  designates  the  target,  allots  a  part  thereof  to  each 
platoon,  announces  the  sight  setting,  indicates  the  kind  of 
fire  (ordinarily  Fire  at  will)  and  the  time  to  open  fire. 
His  orders  and  instructions  are  for  the  platoon  leaders. 

Platoon  Leaders. — Each  platoon  leader  puts  into 
execution  the  orders  of  the  captain.  He  describes  the 
location  and  limits  of  the  part  of  the  target  allotted  to  his 
platoon,  announces  the  sight  setting,  and  at  signal  from 
the  captain,  opens  the  kind  of  fire  ordered.  Thereafter  he 
must  carefully  observe  the  target  and  the  effects  of  the  fire 
in  order  to  correct  any  error  in  the  estimate  of  the  range. 
His  effort  is  to  place  the  densest  part  of  the  cone  of  fire 
in  the  target. 

Platoon  Guides. — The  duties  of  the  platoon  guides 
are  disciplinary.  They  watch  the  firing  line  and  at  once 
check  any  breach  of  fire  discipline. 

Squad  Leaders. — The  squad  leaders  transmit  to  their 
squads  the  orders  and  signals  of  the  platoon  leaders,  and 
they  must  be  on  the  alert  for  such  orders  and  signals.  They 
assure  themselves  that  the  men  of  their  squads  see  the 
target  and  have  their  sights  set  at  the  range  indicated. 
They  at  once  check  any  wild  firing  or  excitement  and  at  all 
times  assist  in  maintaining  fire  discipline.     From  their 


LEADERS  91 

positions  in  the  centre  of  their  squads  they  can  perform 
these  duties,  exerting  at  all  times  the  necessary  influence 
over  the  skirmishers,  and  yet  participate  in  the  firing. 
They  must  not,  because  they  are  in  the  firing  line,  simply 
be  "  one  of  the  squad,"  but  must  retain  the  character  of 
leader.  And  in  action  they  must  remember  that  the  effi- 
cient firing  of  their  squads  is  of  more  importance  than 
their  own  individual  skill  in  marksmanship,  however 
excellent  shots  they  may  be. 

Privates. — The  private  must  look  to  his  squad  leader 
for  instructions  and  promptly  obey  every  order  or  signal. 
In  executing  the  firings  on  the  drill  ground  he  should 
always  select  a  definite  aiming  point  within  the  target  and 
then  hold,  aim,  and  pull  the  trigger  properly.  In  action 
he  must  practice  what  he  has  learned  by  training.  He 
must  endeavor  to  make  hits  instead  of  misses.  His  de- 
termination to  make  each  shot  a  hit  will  of  itself  regulate 
the  rate  of  fire.  He  must  remember  that  the  more  effec- 
tive his  are,  the  less  effective  be  the  fire  of  the  enemy. 
That  such  superiority  of  fire  ensures  victory,  and  is  the 
best  protection  that  can  be  given  him  in  advancing  to  the 
attack. 

Statistics  show  that  in  battle  the  percentage  of  casual- 
ties is  much  higher  among  the  officers  than  among  those 
in  ranks.  A  severe  action  deprives  not  one  but  many 
companies  of  all  officers.  But  even  those  companies 
which  have  suffered  heavy  losses,  including  all  their  of- 
ficers, will  be  capable  of  further  sustained  effort  if  the 
remaining  leaders  are  equal  to  their- tasks.  This,  however, 
requires  that  the  sergeants  and  corporals  be  leaders  in 
fact  as  well  as  in  name — that  they  be  trained  in  the  func- 
tions of  leadership.  No  matter  how  short  the  period  of 
enrollment,  how  limited  the  time  available  for  training, 
especial  effort  must  be  made  to  improve  the  military 
judgment  of  these  noncommissioned  officers,  and  to 
develop  their  capacity  for  leadership. 


92  INFANTRY 

Suggestions  in  Giving  Instruction 

Successful  instruction  is  a  combination  of  verbal  ex- 
planation and  demonstration.  The  former  supplies  cor- 
rect ideas  and  gives  to  the  latter  an  interest  and  purpose. 
Men  cannot  be  expected  to  take  much  interest  in  work 
the  purpose  of  which  they  do  not  understand,  and  without 
interest  substantial  progress  is  impossible. 

The  instructor  must  keep  in  mind  the  ultimate  object 
of  all  training,  success  in  battle,  and  then  apply  each  of 
the  various  classes  of  drill  and  instruction  to  that  definite 
end.  It  is  only  by  thus  keeping  the  ultimate  purpose  in 
view  that  he  will  recognize  when  the  ends  of  training  in 
any  particular  subject  have  been  attained,  and  avoid  either 
slighting  a  subject  or  emphasizing  it  at  the  expense  of 
another.  As  the  purpose  of  close  order  drill  is  to  teach 
the  men  orderly  movement  and  to  accustom  them  to  habits 
of  obedience,  these  results  once  obtained,  but  little  time 
thereafter  is  required  to  maintain  reasonable  efficiency 
therein,  and  the  bulk  of  the  time  can  be  more  profitably 
employed  at  other  work.  Similarly,  the  mechanism  of 
extended  order  learned,  further  instruction  should  then 
take  the  form  of  combat  exercises  against  an  imaginary, 
outlined,  or  represented,  enemy.  Into  such  combat  exer- 
cises enter  the  discipline  derived  from  close  order,  the 
mechanism  of  combat  and  control  obtained  by  extended 
order,  and  in  addition  thereto  all  grades  are  practised  in 
the  duties  that  would  actually  befall  them  in  battle,  and 
their  judgment  and  capacity  for  the  performance  of  those 
duties  are  thus  improved. 

Therefore  the  instruction  should  he  progressive,  each 
period  having  a  definite  purpose,  and  designed  to  teach  a 
definite  lesson. 

The  instructor  must  demonstrate  his  own  proficiency 
and  his  interest  in  the  work  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
efforts  and  co-operation  of  those  under  him.  In  the  close 
order  work  careful  attention  to  the  method  of  giving  com- 
mands, as  explained  in  paragraphs  38-40.  is  necessary  for 


THE  INSTRUCTOR  93 

precise  drill.  When  a  movement  is  well  executed,  say  so. 
If  improperly  executed,  explain  wherein  it  was  faulty,  and 
then  repeat  it.  Do  not,  however,  repeat  a  movement  over 
and  over  again  without  such  explanation,  otherwise  none 
will  know  who  was  at  fault  or  what  mistake  was  made,  and 
improvement  will  be  impossible.  In  executing  the  firings, 
the  sight  setting  announced  should  correspond  with  the 
actual  range.  Do  not  designate  as  target  some  object  one 
hundred  yards  distant,  and  then  announce  a  sight  setting 
of  say  seven  hundred  yards.  Estimate  the  range  care- 
fully, and  then  order  a  sight  setting  in  accordance  there- 
with. And  from  the  very  commencement  of  the  firings, 
cultivate  in  the  soldier  the  habit  of  always  selecting  within 
the  target  some  definite  point  of  aim,  and  then  aiming  as 
carefully  as  though  he  were  actually  firing  at  the  target 
with  ball  cartridges. 

In  the  extended  order  work  encourage  in  the  sub- 
ordinates a  willingness  and  capacity  to  lead.  The  captain 
should  not  endeavor  to  command  personally  each  of  the 
various  platoons  and  squads,  but  should  limit  himself  to 
commanding  platoon  and  squad  leaders,  who  in  turn 
command  and  lead  their  respective  units. 

In  conducting  a  combat  exercise  the  instructor  first 
carefully  explains  to  the  entire  command  the  nature 'and 
purpose  of  the  exercise  and  the  particular  lessons  he 
wishes  to  teach.  The  exercise  is  then  carried  out,  after 
which  the  command  is  again  assembled,  preferably  at 
some  point  aflfording  a  good  view  of  the  terrain  under 
consideration,  and  the  good  and  bad  features  of  the  work 
brought  to  notice.  In  his  comments  the  instructor  should 
avoid  mere  fault-finding.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  train- 
ing of  troops,  criticism  should  be  constructive,  and,  after 
calling  attention  to  a  mistake,  the  correct  way  of  doing 
that  particular  thing  should  always  be  fully  and  patiently 
explained. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CAVALRY 

1.  Fundamentally  the  Cavalry,  like  the  Artillery,  is  an 
auxiliary  arm.  The  Infantry  is  the  army,  its  success  or 
defeat  decides  the  ultimate  issue.  Cavalry  and  Artillery 
may  be  called  upon  to  make  the  last  sacrifice  to  save  the 
day  for  the  Infantry,  and  they  must  enter  into  such  en- 
gagement whole  heartedly,  not  grumblingly  and  with  dis- 
gust at  the  "  Doughboys."  How  important  then  that 
peace  training  include  an  entente  cordiale  between  the 
arms,  rather  than  the  slurs  and  cheap  witticisms  so  often 
heard.  These  have  been  known  to  result  in  mutual  bitter- 
ness and  enmity,  and  have  been  found  an  expensive  luxury 
on  many  a  battlefield  where  co-operation  was  essential  to 
success. 

2.  The  first  weapon  of  the  cavalryman  is  his  horse ; 
and  an  opportunity  to  charge  home  is  his  chief  delight. 
With  the  new  sabre,  and  particularly  with  the  Colt  Auto- 
matic 45  calibre  pistol,  he  is  the  best  armed  cavalryman 
in  the  world.  Even  where  ground  is  difficult,  bold,  skill- 
ful leadership  will  often  carry  trained  cavalry  to  success 
in  mounted  action.  And  mounted  action  not  only  allows 
you  to  retain  your  mobility  and  thus  the  so  valuable  initi- 
ative, but  its  results  are  more  fruitful  in  success.  Hence 
cavalry  is  loath  to  dismount ;  and  engages  in  dismounted 
fire  action  only  when  forced  by  conditions  to  do  so. 

3.  In  dismounted  fire  action  cavalry  must  be  as  good 
as  infantry,  and  much  of  its  work  will  be  of  this  kind. 
While  it  is  not  expected  to  engage  like  infantry  in  the 
long  gruelling  advance  upon  entrenched  positions,  its 
functions  will  often  require  the  capture  of  some  position 
and  holding  it  until  the  infantry  arrive.  The  same 
"  nothing  can  stop  us  "  spirit  of  the  charge  must  char- 
acterize cavalry  discipline  even  in  its  dismounted  ad- 
vance; for  quick  results  are  required  in  cavalry  work, 
and  we  must  not  fail. 

04 


MOUNTED  COMBAT  95 

4.  On  the  flanks  of  the  main  battlefield  opportunities 
will  come  even  to  subordinate  commanders  to  deliver 
telling  blows  against  the  enemy.  There  can  then  be  no 
waiting  for  orders.  A  cavalry  leader  must  welcome 
responsibility,  and  grasp  his  chance  instantly.  Hesita- 
tion now  will  not  only  lose  the  opportunity,  but  is  very 
likely  to  be  misconstrued  by  your  men  and  by  your 
superiors. 

5.  Cavalry  leadership  then  requires  peculiar  qualities ; 
a  quick  eye  to  see  a  fleeting  opportunity,  the  boldness  for 
an  equally  quick  decision  to  grasp  it,  the  clearness  of  mind 
to  form  a  good  plan  quickly,  the  ability  to  convey  that 
plan  to  subordinates  in  short  clear  orders,  the  firmness 
of  will  to  carry  through  the  plan  adopted,  and  all  the 
while  that  high  demeanor  of  confidence  and  even  joy  in 
the  fight  that  is  an  inspiration  to  his  followers. 

6.  Mounted  combat  requires  three  things  that  must  be 
considered  in  peace  training : 

a.  That  the  commanding  officer  be  able  to  control  the 
movements  of  his  command  from  a  distance.  He  must 
ride  along  high  ground  whence  he  may  study  the  terrain 
and  watch  the  enemy,  meantime  controlling  his  troops  as 
they  move  under  cover. 

b.  That  the  commanding  ofiicer  be  sure  of  his  ability 
to  maneuver  at  fast  gaits  in  the  actual  presence  of  the 
enemy.  He  must  seek  a  relative  position  that  will  enable 
him  to  launch  his  charge  suddenly  at  an  advantageous 
angle  and  that  will  also  give  best  opportunity  to  the  ma- 
chine guns  or  artillery  for  delivering  their  fire  as  he 
charges.  This  means  for  subordinate  commanders  and 
for  the  men  in  ranks  that  they  be  able  to  put  up  the 
smartest  possible  close  order  drill,  keeping  the  fours  to- 
gether, keeping  accurate  distance  in  column  and  alignment 
and  interval  in  line  formation,  keen  in  catching  and  obey- 
ing commands,  in  regulating  gaits  and  conforming  accur- 
ately to  the  guide.  Poor  cavalry  has  to  charge  straight 
at  the  enemy,  for  its  leader  has  no  confidence  in  its  ability 
to  maneuver  in  such  time  of  stress. 


96  CAVALRY 

c.  That  the  horses  reach  the  critical  point  in  prime 
condition  for  the  supreme  work.  Their-  energies  must, 
therefore,  have  been  conserved  during  the  work  of  the 
approach,  by  avoiding  unnecessary  speed  in  deployments, 
in  messenger  and  scouting  duty,  etc.  Peace  training 
should  instill  in  the  man  the  habit  of  conserving  his  horse's 
strength.  This  is  characteristic  of  a  good  cavalryman 
riding  for  pleasure ;  in  the  hunting  field,  wherever  he  be, 
he  is  constantly  quieting  his  mount,  restraining  his  natural 
impulse  to  higher  speed,  unconsciously  conserving  his 
energies  to  meet  a  supreme  test  when  i.  comes.  It  is  by 
having  thus  cared  for  their  horses,  on  the  march  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  individual  work  afield,  that  the  men  may 
now  ride  out  upon  the  battlefield  confident  in  the  strength 
of  their  horses  to  overthrow  the  ranks  of  the  enemy. 

7.  Added  means  of  aerial  reconnaissance  and  of  quick 
transmission  of  information,  the  increased  size  of  modem 
armies  and  the  great  extent  of  modern  battlefields  all 
combine  to  increase  the  necessity  for  mobility  in  the  fight- 
ing forces;  for  quick  changes  in  dispositions  will  be  of 
vital  importance,  and  they  must  be  made  over  considerable 
distances.  Here  is  work  for  cavalry;  and  their  horses 
must  be  fit  for  severe  tests  of  speed  and  endurance,  and 
the  men  ready  to  dismount  and  with  their  rifles  fight  as 
skillfully  as  infantry. 

This  kind  of  fighting,  however,  applies  generally  to 
large  forces  of  cavalry  taking  part  in  a  general  battle,  and 
should  be  the  second  or  third  thought  for  the  commander 
of  isolated  cavalry.  In  the  latter  case,  if  fire  action  is 
desired,  it  is  believed  that  for  trained  troops  mounted  fire 
action  with  our  deadly  Colts  will  be  found  of  tremendous 
value  to  the  American  cavalry. 

8.  There  is  no  normal  attack  formation.  In  general 
about  two-thirds  the  force  is  put  into  the  attacking  line, 
and  one-third  in  the  reserve.  The  attacking  line  charges 
with  only  the  force  deemed  immediately  necessary,  the 
other  troops  following  closely  in  support,  lending  moral 
support  to  the  charge,  and  charging  as  opportunities  de- 


MOUNTED  COMBAT  97 

velop.  All  troops  rally  immediately  after  the  charge  and 
return  to  the  fight.  That  side  wins  in  the  end  which  has 
the  last  formed  troops  in  hand  for  charging;  hence  the 
importance  of  each  unit  quickly  rallying  and  getting  back 
into  the  fight. 

9.  Numberless  books  of  vital  interest  to  all  cavalrymen 
have  been  written  on  this  subject,  but  their  discussions  and 
precepts  beyond  inspiring  Cavalry  Spirit  which  is  of  value 
to  us  all,  are  mostly  for  higher  commanders.  And  while 
it  is  true  that  the  broader  the  understanding  of  our  profes- 
sion, the  more  intelligently  we  should  play  our  part  therein, 
yet  it  is  believed  that  your  limited  time  should  first  be 
given  exclusively  to  learning  your  own  troop  duties  until 
you  are  so  sure  of  them  that  they  have  become  second 
nature  to  you.  Then  take  up  an  academic  discussion  of 
higher  functions.  Half-baked  knowledge  of  the  Gen- 
eral's duties  often  makes  the  subaltern  so  severe  a  critic 
of  his  superiors  that  he  has  little  time  or  energy  left  for 
loyal  execution  of  his  own  proper  functions. 

10.  For  your  part  in  the  combat  of  larger  units  you 
will  have  had  previous  training  at  drill,  and  you  and  your 
men  will  be  under  the  eye  and  direction  of  your  superior 
officers.  You  may,  therefore,  face  this  with  equanimity 
as  easy  of  accomplishment.  What  you  have  got  to  study 
and  thoroughly  prepare  for  are  your  manifold  duties  in 
connection  with  the  employment  of  cavalry  in  its  more 
common  role,  the  service  of  Security  and  Information. 
Here  you  will  often  find  yourself  alone  with  your  men, 
far  from  the  directing  influence  of  superiors,  the  whole 
responsibility  yours,  and  success  dependent  upon  your 
resourcefulness,  judgment  and  faithful  leadership. 

11.  .The  prime  duty  for  cavalry  in  campaign  and  up 
to  the  instant  of  the  actual  clash  of  the  armies  in  battle  is 
to  gain  information  of  the  enemy  and  at  the  same  time  by 
screening  our  forces  from  observation  prevent  the  enemy's 
gaining  information  of  us.  This  work  is  discussed  in  the 
subjects  of  Cavalry  Screens,  Contact  Squadrons,  etc., 
studies  for  higher  officers,  and  means  for  the  noncommis- 

7 


98  CAVALRY 

sioned  officers  and  privates  just  one  of  two  things — either 
work  under  the  immediate  direction  of  their  officers,  or 
else  individual  work  in  patrolling  and  reconnaissance. 
Even  when  on  service  as  advance  guard,  rear  or  flank 
guard,  or  outposts,  your  individual  duties  are  still  those 
of  reconnaissance. 

13.  And  every  private  even  must  be  taught  as  much 
as  may  be  of  the  principles  of  patrolling,  since  every  man 
is  liable  to  duty  as  member  of  a  patrol,  and  through  casual- 
ties or  dispersion  it  may  occur  at  any  time  that  the  stupidest 
member  of  the  patrol  will  be  left  alone  to  carry  on  its  work 
— and  his  ability  to  do  this,  and  his  faithfulness  to  duty, 
may  alone  result  in  giving  our  General  the  very  informa- 
tion that  will  bring  success  to  our  cause. 

13.  Almost  any  man  can  make  a  fair  soldier  in  ranks, 
surrounded  by  his  fellows,  following  his  leader;  but  it 
takes  rare  courage  and  a  high  sense  of  duty  for  a  man  to 
keep  on  alone,  sole  survivor  of  his  patrol,  hours  away 
from  his  command,  facing  constant  unknown  dangers,  and 
exhausting  the  last  resource  to  gain  the  information  his 
patrol  was  sent  to  get.  Yet  service  may  demand  this  of 
any  cavalryman,  and  you  will  see  the  necessarily  high 
standard  to  which  he  must  attain,  the  degree  of  training, 
loyalty  and  faithfulness  to  duty  that  must  be  his.  This 
necessity  for  individual  excellence  no  doubt  accounts  for 
the  Cavalry  Spirit  that  characterizes  our  Arm,  the  spirit 
which  inspires  the  individual  to  this  faithfulness  to  duty 
far  from  observation. 

14.  In  the  service  of  Information,  a  peculiar  quality 
must  characterise  the  discipline  of  Cavalry,  developing 
individual  initiative,  responsibility  and  faithful  perform- 
ance of  duties  not  prescribed  by  superiors  but  recognized 
as  such  in  the  individual  breast.  The  Infantry  works  en 
masse,  the  Artilleryman  always  under  direction  of  his 
officers.  They  have  but  to  execute  orders.  They  are  the 
body  of  an  army,  the  bone  and  sinew  of  its  mass  and 
strength.  The  Cavalry  patrols  are  the  fingers  reaching 
out,  brushing  aside,  feeling  for  a  good  hold  in  the  struggle 


MOUNTED  COMBAT  99 

to  come;  flashing  back  information  along  the  nerve 
channels  to  the  controlling  mind.  They  work  in  small 
groups,  often  as  individual  scouts,  perhaps  a  day's  march 
away  from  their  officers,  alone  with  their  military  con- 
sciences. None  but  God  will  know  whether  they  have 
done  their  best,  whether  they  have  dared  enough  to  accom- 
plish their  mission.  Whether  when  opportunity  offered 
for  them  to  gain  the  information,  they  had  the  cool  cour- 
age and  resourcefulness  to  go  in  and  get  it,  or  quietly 
skulked  in  safety  and  let  the  opportunity  pass.  The  dis- 
cipline of  Cavalry  must  develop  such  esprit  as  will  ensure 
the  individual's  giving  his  uttermost,  be  he  lone  private, 
scouting,  or  noncommissioned  officer  leading  his  patrol. 

And  that  cavalry  commander  is  missing  the  very  ele- 
ments of  his  task  who  fails  not  alone  to  give  opportunity, 
but  to  seek  opportunities  in  administration  and  drill  to 
develop  in  his  subordinates  initiative  and  a  sense  of  indi- 
vidual responsibility.  That  Colonel  who  trains  his  men 
all  to  look  to  him  for  decision  in  all  matters  must  expect 
disappointment  when  his  troops  meet  actual  conditions  in 
campaign,  for  he  will  not  then  be  present  to  control  every 
situation,  and  his  men,  unused  to  responsibility  and  initia- 
tive, will  not  act  quickly  and  surely — even  worse,  often 
will  not  act  at  all.     A  vital  failure  in  cavalry  training! 

15.  Each  arm  of  the  service  is  training  to  play  its  own 
part  on  the  battlefield,  disciplining  its  men  that  they  may 
hold  true  to  standard  amid  that  strain  and  roar  and  loss 
of  life.  And  here  again  for  mounted  combat,  the  discipline 
of  Cavalry  has  a  unique  quality  all  its  own.  While  others 
must  hold  hard,  cool  and  deliberate  to  launch  their  projec- 
tiles with  mathematical  precision  along  trajectories 
through  miles  of  space,  the  cavalryman  may  toss  his  pipe 
into  the  air  and  unrestrained  with  gleeful  shout  launch 
himself  right  at  the  foe.  He  rides  along  his  trajectory, 
and  the  whistle  of  the  bullet  is  the  wind  in  his  ears  as  the 
line  sweeps  forward  with  a  yell.  Does  he  stop  to  cal- 
culate !  Does  he  care  a  hang !  It  is  the  spirit  of  youth — 
reckless,  daring,  unconquerable  youth  that  will  not  be 


100  CAVALRY 

denied!     That  is  a  Cavalry  charge,  that  the  fruition  of 
the  Cavalry  Spirit  we  are  fostering. 

The  enemy  appears,  the  fleeting  opportunity  offers; 
it's  away  with  restraint,  down  close  into  our  saddles  with 
a  leghold  of  our  horses,  and  away  with  a  joyous  rush  to 
batter  him  down.  It  is  the  sport  of  kings,  the  joy  of 
knights  of  old.  •  He  who  has  never  ridden  a  splendid 
horse  in  full  cry  across  country  has  no  conception  of  the 
feeling  of  elation,  of  irresistibleness,  of  wondering  "  what 
can  stop  us,"  that  fills  the  breast. 

No  bloodless  man  can  hope  to  lead  on  the  field  of 
Cavalry  Combat,  no  weigher  of  pros  and  cons  who  can't 
decide,  no  gentle  soul  who  cannot  joy  in  actual  encounter ; 
years  he  may  have,  but  they  must  not  have  aged  his  youth- 
ful heart  and  ardor. 

"  Cunning  he  must  have  for  the  approach,  nerve,  and 
unflinching  resolution ;  then  reckless  and  bloody-minded 
intrepidity ;  and  withal  the  power  to  inspire  his  men, 
even  the  weak-hearted,  with  the  certainty  of  success  and 
the  joy  of  battle.  Though  they  know  some  cannot  come 
back,  still  they  like  to  be  deceived,  to  die  or  to  be  maimed, 
fierce,  highhearted,  and  elated." — Remington. 

"  And  then  we  reformed  and  went  at  them  once  more, 
And  ere  they  had  rightly  closed  up  the  old  track. 
We  broke  through  the  lane  we  had  opened  before, 
And  as*  we  went  forward  e'en  so  we  came  back." 

— Lindsay  Gordon. 

If  your  heart  does  not  respond  to  the  swing  of  this 
Cavalry  spirit,  stop  now,  and  transfer  your  services  to 
that  arm  for  which  you  are  qualified.  All  are  equally  hon- 
orable. And  one  who  may  be  unsuited  to  the  dash  of 
Cavalry  may  be  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  cool,  determined 
work  in  other  arms. 

For  Cavalry  must  have  Spirit,  Spirit  and  all  the  time 
Spirit.  And  that  group  of  Cavalrymen  who  have  worked 
together  and  have  not  yet  their  own  songs  and  forms  of 
celebration,  have  missed  expression  for  the  joy  that  is  in 


ORGANIZATION  101 

them,  and  their  leaders  have  failed  to  take  full  advantage 
of  the  opportunities  for  development. 

1 6.  Organization. — The  war  strength  of  a  cavalry 
troop  is  fixed  at  3  officers  and  100  enlisted  men.  Of  these, 
the  officers  and  86  men  are  for  duty  with  the  troop ;  while 
14  enlisted  (i  sergeant,  I  corporal,  i  wagoner  and  11 
privates)  are  for  detail  to  the  various  service  detachments. 
The  fighting  troop  organized  is  then :  i  first  sergeant,  i 
quartermaster  sergeant,  5  sergeants,  7  corporals,  2  cooks, 
I  farrier,  i  horseshoer,  i  saddler,  no  wagoner,  2  trumpeters 
and  65  privates.  These  are  organized  into  three  platoons 
of  two  permanent  squads  each. 

17.  In  the  troop  the  first  sergeant  and  quartermaster 
sergeant  are  made  and  unmade  by  the  troop  commander. 
In  the  regular  service  the  quartermaster  sergeant  takes 
rank  according  to  the  date  of  his  warrant  as  sergeant; 
and  is  available  for  line  sergeant  duty  at  drill. 

18.  The  stable  sergeant,  named  also  by  the  troop  com- 
mander, is  generally  made  squad  leader  of  the  "stable 
crew,"  consisting  of  the  horseshoer,  farrier,  saddler, 
and  generally  at  least  one  other  private  detailed  as  stable 
orderly,  or  as  wagoner,  or  both.  This  stable  crew  in 
the  field  is  exempt  from  guard  duty,  camps  on  the  left 
of  the  line  and  takes  charge  of  the  picket  line.  Hav- 
ing these  men  always  on  this  duty  ensures  carrying  out 
intelligently  and  surely  the  instructions  of  the  veterinary 
for  the  care  of  the  horses,  sick  or  injured, 

19.  The  well-equipped  troop  will  have  more  than  two 
men  trained  as  cooks,  so  that  a  substitute  is  available  in 
case  of  emergency.  To  have  these  and  have  them  really 
capable  is  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  the  troop 
commander. 

20.  The  trumpeters  should  always  be  particularly  well 
mounted,  and  custom  seems  to  prescribe  that  they  be  light, 
alert,  and  good  horsemen ;  and  especially  neat  in  appear- 
ance, for  theirs  is  a  conspicuous  duty.  A  trumpeter 
should  always  accompany  an  officer,  mounted.  A  snappy, 
highly  military  performance  of  his  duty  as  orderly  reflects 
credit  on  the  standard  of  the  troop.     One  is  assigned  per- 


102  CAVALRY 

manently  to  the  captain,  the  other  to  the  two  lieutenants, 

for  orderly  duty. 

21.  The  troop,  made  up  of  well  trained  squad  teams, 
is  the  fighting  machine  with  whose  efficiency  you  are  par- 
ticularly concerned.  The  colonel  of  the  regiment  wants 
twelve  troops  trained  to  his  standard  of  efficiency;  and 
three  majors  able  to  fight  them  to  fullest  advantage.  This 
makes  the  school  of  the  troop  the  practical  limit  of  the 
field  for  personal  training.  Beyond  this  the  majors  must 
have  opportunity  to  learn  to  handle  the  troops  skillfully 
in  battle  exercises,  both  mounted  and  dismounted ;  alone, 
and  in  conjunction  with  the  fire  action  of  machine  guns  or 
horse  artillery.  And  troop  commanders  must  know  the 
principles  and  mechanism  of  these  squadron  maneuvers, 
not  alone  to  handle  their  troops  intelligently,  but  to  be 
able  to  take  command  when  occasion  demands. 

The  fast  mounted  squadron  drill  in  close  order  gives 
the  mechanism  and  training  for  maneuvering  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  enemy  preparatory  to  delivering  the  charge  in 
mounted  combat.  The  chapter  on  "  extended  order  "  ex- 
plains the  mechanism  and  training  for  the  charge,  and  for 
the  dismounted  fire  fight.  If  you  acquire  proficiency  in 
both  these  at  the  home  station  you  will  have  gone  far; 
and  will  be  ready  to  participate  in  battle  exercises  at 
maneuvers. 

22.  Cavalry  Drill. — Our  cavalry  service  has  been  un- 
dergoing a  process  of  evolution  which  demands  a  new 
drill  manual.  A  Board  is  preparing  this  now,  and  it 
should  be  available  in  a  few  months.  It  would  be  im- 
practicable to  anticipate  any  of  its  details,  and  our  discus- 
sion of  cavalry  training  will  include  only  those  basic 
propositions  which  must  be  true  in  any  system  of  training. 

When  the  Drill  Manual  is  available,  take  it  as  your  in- 
fallible guide.  The  great  trouble  with  most  military 
students  is  their  inclination  to  ignore  the  drill  manual  of 
their  arm,  and  to  seek  information  elsewhere.  In  reality 
these  manuals  are  the  boiled  down  thought  and  experience 
of  generations,  and  nothing  can  equal  their  excellence. 


ARMAMENT  103 

The  Infantry  Manual  is  the  best  book  in  the  English  lan- 
guage to-day  on  the  business  of  soldiering,  and  if  infantry- 
men would  but  concentrate  their  attention  on  properly 
learning  it,  there  would  be  little  left  to  be  desired  The 
same  will  be  true  for  the  cavalry  manual  when  completed. 

Two  facts  characterize  the  study  of  drill  manuals, 
doubtless  due  to  the  concentrated  essence  of  their  contents. 
First,  you  may,  and  should,  go  over  the  same  subject  many 
different  times,  and  yet  you  are  sure  always  to  pick  up 
some  new  point  that  you  have  missed  before ;  and  second, 
there  is  no  known  soporific,  so  sure  to  induce  sleep,  as 
study  of  a  drill  manual. 

I  recommend  that  you  make  it  a  practice  to  mark  with 
a  pencil  those  paragraphs  and  explanations  most  important 
to  your  work,  to  help  your  eye  to  catch  these  things  when 
you  are  refreshing  your  mind  preparatory  to  taking  a  drill. 

23.  All  cavalry  drill  must  be  characterized  by  elasticity, 
and  sivinging  through,  either  mounted  or  dismounted. 
This  is  essential  to  the  development  of  our  peculiar  dis- 
cipline, and  we  have  to  watch  that  stiffness  be  not  intro- 
duced at  drill,  which  would  defeat  it.  For  example,  a 
fundamental  principle  of  marching  in  line  is,  that  each 
individual  shall  march  straight  to  the  front,  uniformly,  at 
the  same  rate  as  the  guide;  and  that  he  shall  make  his 
corrections  for  alignment  or  interval  very  gradually.  This 
gives  the  desired  elasticity  and  freedom  of  movement. 
Observe  its  corollary ;  telling  a  man  at  drill  to  correct  in- 
terval or  alignment,  you  must  be  careful  to  do  it  in  a  tone 
that  will  not  make  him  jump,  and  thus  do  it  abruptly. 

And  in  the  same  spirit  we  forbid  the  men  in  ranks  to 
correct  interval  after  halting  in  line.  No  passaging  is  then 
allowed.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  the  intervals  quite  cor- 
rect, special  instructions  are  given,  and  the  necessary  time 
taken  for  these  corrections. 

24.  Armament. — The  cavalryman  is  armed  with  the 
rifle,  saber,  and  Colt  Automatic  45-caliber  pistol.  The 
rifle  is  his  weapon  for  dismounted  use.  It  is  the  same  as 
that  used  by  the  infantry,  except  that  it  carries  no  bayonet, 
and  the  cavalry  must  be  expert  in  its  use  and  care. 


104  CAVALRY 

25.  But  the  characteristic  arm  is  the  saber,  ever  in 
evidence  at  ceremonies,  carried  by  the  Cavalry  private  as 
well  as  by  officers  of  all  arms.  It  should  be  his  pride  to 
carry  it  smartly,  to  use  it  in  the  manual  with  snap  and 
precision.  But  none  of  your  limited  time  can  well  be 
given  to  trying  to  learn  the  saber  exercises.  It  is  impos- 
sible without  giving  additional  time  for  you  to  become 
skilled  with  the  sword — an  unnatural  weapon  in  the  hands 
of  an  American.  Enough  that  you  learn  the  one  offensive 
movement,  to  thrust  with  the  point,  and  never  even  hear 
of  the  possibility  of  cutting.  It  is  well  known  that  real 
damage  to  the  enemy  results  from  the  use  of  the  point 
only.  Our  own  book  prescribes  it,  yet  the  American  sol- 
dier invariably  swings  his  saber  in  an  effort  to  cut,  and 
with  about  the  finesse  of  handling  a  huge  cheese-knife. 

26.  The  pistol  is  the  natural  weapon  of  the  American. 
From  boyhood  up  he  is  familiar  with  its  use,  and  naturally 
believes  in  its  efficiency.  The  cavalryman  should  be  so 
trained  as  to  develop  and  take  full  advantage  of  this  na- 
tional characteristic,  and  be  given  a  handiness  with  this 
weapon  that  will  add  materially  to  his  effectiveness  in 
service.  Give  him  opportunity  to  point  and  snap  the 
pistol  when  riding  at  drill,  and  encourage  him  to  do  it  at 
will  while  at  route  order  on  the  march.  This  will  train 
his  hand  to  the  necessary  control. 

In  your  early  training  of  the  men  in  pistol  firing,  make 
it  the  first  consideration  that  the  man  instantly  return  to 
the  position  raise  pistol  or  lower  pistol  upon  firing  his 
piece.  Make  him  concentrate  his  control  on  this,  rather 
than  on  hitting  the  target,  until  it  becomes  a  fixed  habit. 
He  can  then  give  his  attention  to  shooting  accurately,  and 
the  safety  of  his  fellows,  his  horse,  and  himself  will  be 
conserved ;  this  is  important.  Make  him  appreciate  that 
the  facility  with  which  a  careless  trooper  Roman-candles 
his  pistol  about,  makes  his  danger  zone  become  a  danger 
sphere,  of  which  he  is  the  centre  and  everywhere  is  the 
circumference. 


SCHOOL  OF  THE  TROOPER  105 

Close  Order  Drills 

27.  School  of  the  Trooper. — A  "  trooper "  is  a 
cavalryman  on  his  horse.  And  this  school  consists  largely 
in  horsemanship,  so  essential  to  being  a  good  cavalryman. 
To  emphasize  its  importance,  and  to  place  it  conveniently 
for  others  who  may  be  interested  in  its  study,  horseman- 
ship has  been  treated  in  a  subject  by  itself.  Most  of  this 
school  can  be  actually  self  taught,  the  use  of  arms,  as  well 
as  of  the  horse. 

28.  Mounted  exercises  are  even  more  important  than 
the  corresponding  setting  up  exercises  of  the  foot  soldier, 
Suppleness  of  the  rider's  body  is  an  essential  for  a  good 
seat.  These  exercises  not  only  give  that,  they  inspire  con- 
fidence, and  assist  in  gentling  the  horse.  They  should  be 
given  from  time  to  time  throughout  the  training  period. 

29.  Every  cavaliyman  certainly  should  be  able  to  leap 
into  his  saddle  from  the  ground,  the  horse  in  motion.  You 
are  cautioned  against  the  possibility  of  wasting  time  at- 
tempting to  teach  a  man  to  leap  on  his  horse  when  he  per- 
haps has  not  the  ability  to  vault  a  three- foot  fence.  When 
you  find  men  unable  to  mount  freely,  try  them  on  a  wooden 
horse  or  rail ;  you  can  save  much  time  by  requiring  the  men 
to  learn  the  knack  of  jumping  outside  of  the  drill  hour. 

30.  The  fundamental  rule  for  all  mounted  drill,  and 
one  that  must  be  pounded  into  the  soldier  until  it  becomes 
second  nature  to  him,  is  this :  zvith  the  one  exception  of 
wheeling  by  fours,  every  time  a  mounted  man  changes 
direction  he  moves  his  horse  on  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  whose  radius  is  at  least  two  yards,  and  zvithout 
changing  the  horse's  gait,  unless  to  increase  it.  The 
trooper  "swings"  around  this  circle  without  ever  slack- 
ening his  gait,  and  he  must  get  this  idea  of  "  swinging." 
That  will  give  the  drill  the  swing  which  should  charac- 
terize it. 

31.  The  best  preliminary  drill  formation  for  training 
all  the  men  simultaneously  not  only  in  how  to  observe  the 
above  rule,  but  in  horsemanship,  guiding,  regulating,  and 


106  CAVALRY 

in  many  things  that  make  for  good  drills  later,  is  Front 
take  distances,  MARCH.  At  the  command  march,  given 
when  in  line,  all  Nos.  i  move  straight  to  the  front,  keeping 
their  interval  of  three  yards  and  regulating  to  the  right. 
When  this  rank  of  Nos.  i  has  gained  four  feet  distances, 
Nos.  2  similarly  move  out,  keeping  directly  in  rear  of  their 
former  positions  beside  Nos.  i,  and  four  feet  from  head  to 
croup  regulating  to  the  right.  In  the  same  way  Nos.  3 
follow  Nos.  2 ;  and  Nos.  4  follow  Nos.  3.  No.  i  on  the 
right  of  the  leading  rank  is  the  guide  for  all. 

If  this  formation  be  marched  by  the  right  flank,  each 
rank  becomes  a  column  of  troopers,  four  feet  from  head  to 
croup,  the  same  No.  i  the  guide,  the  leading  troopers  of 
the  other  columns  keeping  their  interval  from  the  left,  and 
each,  one  yard  less  advanced  than  the  leader  on  his  left. 
If  the  original  formation  be  marched  by  the  left  flank, 
they  are  again  in  column  of  troopers,  No.  i  leading  the 
right  column  is  the  guide,  and  each  of  the  other  leaders 
regulating  to  the  right  is  one  yard  more  advanced  than 
the  one  on  his  right.  If  the  original  formation  be  marched 
to  the  rear,  by  the  command  "troopers  right  (or  left) 
about,"  the  No.  4  who  was  on  the  right  and  is  now  on  the 
left  of  his  rank  becomes  the  g^ide  of  the  formation. 

You  can  see  that  maintaining  this  formation  during  the 
various  movements  possible  requires  constant  individual 
attention  and  no  small  degree  of  horsemanship  on  the 
part  of  each  trooper,  who  must  keep  himself  accurately  in 
place  alone  by  himself.  He  also  learns  here  to  think  of 
his  comrades,  and  in  time  comes  subconsciously  to  con- 
sider them  in  playing  his  part  in  all  work. 

Go  very  slowly  at  first,  and  assure  yourself  that  all  the 
men  understand  how  to  guide  and  regulate  when  marching 
in  each  of  the  four  directions.  Later  you  may  work  at 
the  fast  gaits.  It  is  the  most  helpful  exercise  for  getting 
into  the  heads  of  the  soldiers  this  idea  of  swinging  on  a 
two  yards  radius.  Give  them  a  few  minutes  smart  drill  in 
marching  by  the  flank  and  in  the  abouts,  insisting  that  they 
keep  up  a  uniform  gait  in  every  change  of  direction  and 


SCHOOL  OF  THE  SQUAD  107 

that  they  watch  the  ground  in  the  turns  to  see  that 
they  are  actually  moving  on  a  circle  of  two  yards  radius. 
By  frequently  using  the  word  "  swing,"  in  this  exercise 
you  help  them  to  get  the  idea.  Tell  them  that  in  moving 
thus  on  these  circles,  they  are  moving  exactly  as  they 
should  when  in  ranks  at  close  order  they  execute  obliques, 
turns,  etc. 

It  is  an  excellent  exercise  in  horsemanship  to  take  this 
formation  out-of-doors,  and  then  require  the  troop  to  fol- 
low in  trace  at  various  gaits  and  in  varied  ground. 

32.  School  of  the  Squad.  Mounted. — Here  is  taught 
practically  everything  of  drill  that  the  private  trooper  need 
know.  But  he  must  know  this  absolutely.  The  more 
advanced  drills  are  studies  for  the  officers  and  noncom- 
missioned officers.  It  is  not  the  difficulty  of  teaching  these 
movements,  even  in  their  perfection,  that  causes  most 
ragged  drills — it  is  the  instructor's  failure  in  subsequent 
drills  to  keep  the  men's  interest  and  attention  to  a  pitch 
necessary  for  their  accurate  performance  of  the  wheels, 
turns,  obliques,  etc.  A  good  drill  master  needs  be  a 
psychologist,  by  nature  or  by  acquisition,  so  to  handle  the 
men  and  the  work  as  to  keep  the  men  interested  and  alert. 

It  is  valuable  in  this  drill  to  change  numbers  from  time 
to  time,  and  thus  give  everyone  the  practice  in  each  posi- 
tion in  the  four.  A  simple  formation  for  this  from  line  is 
to  run  the  odd  numbers  four  yards  to  the  front,  and  form 
rank  right  oblique,  and  then  count  fours. 

33.  The  principle  of  controlling  the  movements  of 
your  men  by  "  leading  "  has  met  with  general  favor.  It  is 
an  important  phase  of  leadership,  and  both  you  and  your 
men  should  have  much  practice  in  it.  No  verbal  com- 
mands whatever  are  given,  the  men  must  be  controlled 
absolutely  by  visual  signals ;  and  in  time  you  should  reach 
a  degree  of  mutual  understanding  that  will  enable  you  to 
control  your  men  from  a  considerable  distance.  Changes 
of  direction  must  be  made  gradually,  that  is  on  a  suffi- 
ciently long  radius,  so  that  the  solid  front  of  the  squad 
may  be  held  intact  during  the  change.     If  an  abrupt 


108  CAVALRY 

change  of  direction  is  desired  the  signal  for  a  hirn  or  a 
half  turn  should  be  given. 

34.  School  of  the  Troop. — Here  the  captain  deals 
directly  with  all  his  men,  working  for  a  uniform  standard 
of  efficiency.  He  co-ordinates  the  work  of  his  chiefs  of 
platoons  and  squad  leaders ;  and,  as  it  works  out  prac- 
tically, he  actually  gives  much  individual  instruction  to  the 
men  themselves.  It  is  intended  that  each  troop  shall  re- 
flect the  troop  leadership  of  its  captain.  To  accomplish 
this  it  is  necessary  that  he  bring  and  keep  his  lieutenants 
and  noncommissioned  officers  into  close  touch  with  his 
intentions,  methods  of  administration  and  instruction,  and 
his  aspirations  for  his  troop — in  this  way  only  can  their 
interest  be  developed,  and  their  energies  loyally  and  faith- 
fully bent  to  the  captain's  assistance. 

35.  In  determining  the  question  of  gaits  you  must  be 
controlled  by  a  consideration  of  the  object  of  the  drill ; 
whether  a  training  in  discipline  requiring  precision  and 
accuracy  primarily,  or  a  drill  in  the  mechanism  of  maneu- 
ver in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  requiring  quick,  sure 
control  by  the  leader,  or  a  fast  dashing  drill  to  arouse  the 
spirits  of  the  men. 

36.  As  to  the  question  of  the  chiefs  of  platoons  repeat- 
ing the  commands  of  the  captain  at  drill :  where  a  chief 
of  platoon  does  repeat  the  commands  of  the  captain,  he 
must  pitch  his  voice  in  a  tone  of  caution  not  of  command. 
When  the  chief  is  giving  commands  to  his  own  platoon, 
which  he  must  do  in  successive  movements,  let  him  pitch 
his  voice  in  a  tone  of  command.  In  any  case,  he  is  re- 
sponsible that  his  platoon  execute  each  movement  cor- 
rectly, and  should  give  cautions  or  commands  as  required. 

37.  Where  conditions  of  the  service  result  in  the  con- 
tinual loss  of  men  from  the  organization  and  they  are 
being  replaced  by  recruits  from  time  to  time,  it  is  generally 
found  impracticable  both  to  keep  the  troop  organization 
in  permanent  squads,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the 
troop  sized  according  to  height.  It  is  believed  to  be  much 
more  important  that  the  organization  of  permanent  squads 


SCHOOL  OF  THE  SQUADRON  lOU 

be  maintained,  the  men  remaining  in  their  squad,  rather 
than  being  continually  shifted  to  accommodate  the  matter 
of  sizing. 

38.  In  forming  the  troop,  it  is  not  actually  necessary 
that  the  noncommissioned  officer  call  the  roll  of  his  squad, 
he  can  easily  check  up  mentally  the  presence  of  all  the 
members  of  his  squad  while  awaiting  the  command. 
Fall  in;  he  is  then  ready  to  report  immediately  after  the 
command.  Whenever  practicable  in  work  about  cainp  or 
garrison  the  troop  should  be  marched  without  counting 
fours;  the  permanent  organization  by  squads  should  give 
a  unit  which  can  be  used  in  commanding  squads  left  turn, 
etc.,  in  marching  to  stables,  to  mess  and  so  forth. 

39.  School  of  the  Squadron. — The  main  practical 
value  of  this  school  is  to  teach,  and  to  train  both  the  major 
and  the  troops  in  the  mechanism  for  a  quick-sure  control 
of  the  troops  by  the  major;  so  he  may  have  the  necessary 
confidence  to  maneuver  them  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy 
in  mounted  combat,  feeling  that  he  can  maneuver  at  speed 
without  loss  of  control  and  cohesion,  ready  and  able  to 
launch  his  troops  in  the  charge  in  any  desired  direction 
and  at  any  instant.  This  means  keen  work  for  the  officers, 
and  for  the  men  the  smartest  troop  drill  possible. 

A  smart  squadron  drill  is  more  interesting  to  the 
officers  than  troop  drill,  and  may  easily  be  made  so  for  the 
men.  The  major  will  take  adv.antage  of  this  drill  to  main- 
tain uniformity  of  instruction  and  execution  throughout 
his  command,  and  also  to  make  evident  to  all  which  of  his 
troops  are  the  most  efficient  and  accurate  in  drill.  This 
latter  should  be  a  great  stimulus  to  interest  for  members 
of  the  troop. 

Even  when  a  troop  is  stationed  alone  the  captain  may 
well  divide  it  at  times  into  two,  and  thus,  by  aid  of  a  little 
imagination,  hold  a  squadron  drill  that  will  give  him  some 
appreciation  of  the  major's  commands,  and  his  officers 
and  sergeants  an  opportunity  to  exercise  command  In  the 
next  higher  grade. 

There- appear  to  be  no  difficulties  in  this  school  de- 


110  CAVALRY 

manding  particular  attention.  For  the  officers  drill  means 
keeping  the  troops  smartly  in  hand,  observing  accurately 
the  matters  of  alignment,  interval,  direction  for  the  base 
unit,  and  above  all  uniformity  of  gait  as  the  responsibility 
therefor  shifts  from  one  platoon  chief  to  another.  Cap- 
tains will  need  be  particularly  careful  about  being  always 
in  the  right  position  with  reference  to  their  troops,  since 
long  experience  as  troop  instructors  has  given  them  the 
habit  of  riding  where  they  please,  and  this  will  spoil  the 
precision  of  a  squadron  drill.  For  noncommissioned  of- 
ficers it  means  studying  the  duties  of  the  guidon  and  of 
the  guides.  Otherwise  both  men  and  chiefs  of  platoons 
have  but  to  carry  out  accurately  an  application  of  troop 
drill. 

40.  Ceremonies. — The  employment  of  these  is  so  rare 
that  it  is  impracticable  to  leani  them  with  the  idea  of 
keeping  them  in  mind.  The  safer  rule,  in  fact  the  rule 
generally  observed  in  the  regular  service,  is  to  look  it  up 
in  the  book  just  before  going  out  for  any  given  ceremony. 

There  is,  however,  one  thing  always  to  be  remembered. 
A  ceremony  is  not  the  place  for  drill  corrections,  and 
everyone  from  privates  up  should  conspire  to  make  the 
movements  quiet,  smooth  and  dignified,  slurring  over 
mistakes  and  making  them  as  inconspicuous  as  possible. 
The  men  must  exercise  the  greatest  self-control  to  ensure 
absolute  steadiness  in  ranks. 

Extended  Order  Drill  and  Battle  Exercises 

41.  School  of  the  Squad. — In  this  school  are  found 
the  principles  and  movements  by  which  the  squad  leader 
trains  both  himself  and  his  men  into  the  squad  team,  so 
they  may  participate  as  such  in  the  battle  exercises  of  the 
troop.  Here  the  noncommissioned  officer  first  finds  him- 
self a  responsible  member  of  the  troop  team,  whose  effi- 
ciency as  a  fighting  machine  will  depend  on  the  excellence 
of  these  component  elements  the  squad  teams. 

This  drill  is  fundamental  in  cavalry  training,  and  most 
interesting  to  the  men,  who  find  themselves  practicing  the 


EXTENDED  ORDER  DRILL  111 

plays  that  they  are  actually  to  use  on  the  battlefield.  It  is 
distinctly  an  outdoor  drill,  and  man  and  horse  must  be  so 
thoroughly  trained  in  this  work  that  they  can  perform 
these  rapid  movements  without  undue  excitement  and 
under  perfect  control. 

When  a  few  men  may  get  together  out  in  the  country, 
for  an  early  evening  or  Sunday  morning,  an  ingenious 
leader  may  give  them  an  hour's  work  in  these  exercises 
that  will  be  tremendously  interesting.  If  a  beginner  him- 
self, he  should  first  look  over  the  available  ground  and 
plan  out  the  exercises  which  may  be  adapted  to  it.  In  this 
way,  if  a  troop  had  but  a  dozen  horses  available,  in  a 
short  time  all  its  members  could  have  received  much 
practical  experience  in  this  important  training. 

42.  In  drilling  the  Charge  in  close  order,  give  your 
first  attention  to  "cohesion ;  "  the  other  conditions,  rapid- 
ity, surprise,  impetuosity,  and  vigor  may  be  easily  acquired 
later  on.  Remember  that  the  prime  requisite  that  you 
are  training  for  is  the  ability  to  deliver  the  blow  of  the 
charge  with  a  solid  mass  eight  feet  high  and  as  wide  as 
the  front  of  your  squad  the  men  riding  boot  to  boot. 

Observe  carefully  the  cautions  given  for  obtaining 
success  in  the  charge.  Note  particularly  that  it  is  recog- 
nized that  this  class  of  drill  gets  the  men  and  horses  more 
or  less  out  of  hand,  and  that  you  are  therefore  required 
to  follow  this  drill  invariably  by  a  few  movements  in  close 
order  executed  with  great  precision. 

In  reconnaissance  work  small  bodies,  perhaps  in  patrol 
formation,  will  be  called  upon  to  charge  at  a  moment's 
notice.  Squad  leaders  should  drill  in  forming  for  and 
delivering  the  charge  without  premeditation  from  both 
march  and  patrol  formation. 

43.  Do  not  assume  that  the  rally  after  the  dispersion 
due  to  the  shock  is  always  made  "  to  the  rear."  It  is  made 
in  whatever  direction  the  leader  finds  the  most  advanta- 
geous line  on  which  he  may  pull  out  and  quickly  rally 
into  a  small  rank  with  which  he  may  enter  the  combat 
again.     It  will  often  happen  in  combat  that  the  charge  will 


112  CAVALRY 

carry  through  and  the  rally  be  made  beyond  the  point  of 
contact  and  in  practically  the  same  direction  as  the  charge. 
The  important  thing  for  both  leader  and  men  is  to  get  the 
habit  of  rallying  quickly  and  surely  on  the  leader,  and 
being  ready  for  further  combat  with  a  minimum  of  delay 
and  confusion. 

44.  The  Extended  order  exercises  are  for  training 
your  squad  so  you  may  handle  it  successfully  on  the  battle- 
field, either  mounted  or  dismounted.  This  work  really 
has  to  be  done  out  of  doors,  and  even  then  you  will  have 
to  use  a  lot  of  imagination  to  provide  situations  which 
seem  to  force  you  to  use  the  squad  exactly  so. 

45.  In  every  deployment  out  of  doors  the  leader  should 
"  indicate  the  direction  "  by  telling  the  base  trooper  to 
march  on  some  specified  objective  as  the  "  comer  of  those 
woods,"  "  that  white  house,"  etc.,  and  this  objective  may 
well  be  somewhat  off  the  perpendicular  to  the  original 
front,  to  train  the  men  in  proj>erly  guiding  on  the  base. 
As  training  progresses  far  enough,  men  should  be  sent  to 
represent  the  enemy  and  instructed  to  move  as  the  enemy 
would,  so  the  squad  may  be  trained  in  directing  itself  on 
a  moving  object.  This  is  an  excellent  exercise  "  in  lead- 
ing "  mounted,  preparatory  to  delivering  a  charge  in  close 
order. 

46.  When  instructing  recruits  in  the  deployment  as 
skirmishers,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  first  the  simpler 
deployment  from  a  flank,  rather  than  from  the  centre. 
Also  to  make  the  first  deployment  with  the  troopers  mov- 
ing at  a  walk,  explaining  that  this  is  for  the  purpose  of 
letting  them  see  how  the  movement  is  going  to  look  and 
what  line  each  will  have  to  march  on.  Then  make  the 
same  deployment  with  the  troopers  moving  at  a  trot.  The 
men  should  now  have  acquired  a  conception  of  what 
they  are  to  do,  and  be  told  that  they  are  now  ready  to 
deploy  in  the  manner  in  which  the  deployment  will  always 
be  made  hereafter,  the  base  at  a  trot  and  the  others  at  a 
gallop.  Caution  the  men  to  give  all  their  attention  to 
controlling  their  horses  and  putting  them  exactly  where 


BATTLE  EXERCISES  118 

they  should  be  in  the  line ;  that  the  men  near  the  base  are 
going  to  get  their  interval  in  about  two  jumps  of  the  horse 
and  must  be  alert  not  to  go  too  far ;  and  that  at  the  com- 
mand March  all  of  the  troopers  except  the  base  execute 
Oblique,  gallop,  march.  It  will  be  very  helpful  at  first 
to  make  your  deployment  with  the  line  advancing  at  a  trot. 

47.  Every  noncommissioned  officer  should  realize  that 
in  the  fire  fight  on  the  battlefield,  no  matter  if  the  order 
come  from  the  highest  general,  its  ultimate  execution  will 
be  carried  out  through  the  squad  leaders.  This  is  a  grave 
responsibility.  In  this  school  he  trains  himself  and  his 
team  so  they  can  be  trusted  to  meet  it. 

Whenever  the  squad  moves  the  squad  leader  actually 
leads  it.  Even  when  the  platoon  or  troop  is  deployed  as 
skirmishers  the  squad  leaders  get  in  front  of  their  squads 
and  lead  them  whenever  a  movement  is  ordered,  returning 
to  the  rank  only  when  halted. 

The  men  take  all  instructions  and  directions  from  their 
squad  leaders,  who  look  to  the  chiefs  of  platoons  for 
signals,  or  direct  to  the  troop  commander,  and  repeat  them 
to  the  men. 

When  firings  are  ordered,  the  squad  leader  goes  in 
rear  of  his  squad  and  directs  and  controls  its  fire.  The 
normal  squad  is  twelve  men,  half  of  a  platoon.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  have  eleven  rifles  in  the  line  under  proper  control, 
than  twelve  not  controlled.  While  the  chief  of  platoon 
may  control  twenty-four  rifles  in  the  line  in  the  drill  hall 
or  on  the  plain,  he  will  find  such  control  impossible  in 
rough  ground  which  is  unknown  to  himself  and  his  men. 
You  have  but  to  attempt  this  to  prove  it  to  your  own 
satisfaction,  and  our  training  must  provide  for  perfect 
control  in  just  such  conditions.  If  the  later  developments 
of  the  battle  bring  conditions  where  the  platoon  chief  can 
control  all  the  rifles  alone,  it  is  simple  to  put  the  squad 
leaders  on  the  line.  But  if  the  conditions  require  the 
assistance  of  squad  leaders  for  control,  it  is  not  so  easy  to 
take  them  from  the  line  and  expect  them  to  control  their 
squads  unless  they  have  been  trained  to  do  it.  I  have 
8 


114  CAVALRY 

watched  squad  leaders  try  to  put  their  squads  into  firing 
positions  in  unknown  varied  ground,  and  the  best  of  them 
are  inclined  to  use  their  hands  to  place  the  individual  men. 
It  takes  much  experience  in  varied  conditions  to  establish 
that  mutual  understanding  which  enables  the  squad  leader 
to  put  his  team  just  where  he  wants  it,  and  to  deliver  the 
desired  fire  just  as  he  wants  that.  And  it  would  be  quite 
impossible  for  a  chief  of  platoon  dealing  directly  with 
the  individuals  of  two  squads. 

48.  To  illustrate  how  the  squad  leader  would  advance 
his  squad  from  one  firing  position  to  another.  When 
ordered  to  advance,  he  would  command  cease  firing;  as 
soon  as  pieces  were  locked  he  would  spring  forward 
through  his  firing  line,  calling  out  follow  me.  The  men 
would  leap  up  and  follow  the  leader,  keeping  their  inter- 
vals in  a  general  alignment  about  two  yards  in  rear  of  him ; 
when  the  leader  reached  a  point  about  two  yards  in  rear 
of  the  new  firing  position  he  would  drop,  calling  out  the 
preliminary  command  for  firing,  generally  fire  at  will; 
the  men  would  pass  the  leader,  drop  quickly  into  their 
individual  firing  positions  on  a  general  alignment  about 
two  yards  in  front  of  him,  and  get  ready  to  fire,  the  rifle 
in  the  position  load.  The  leader  now  calls  the  range,  and 
when  sights  are  adjusted,  designates  the  objective  and 
orders  the  fire. 

The  greatest  need  for  training  in  rough  country,  is  to 
teach  the  men  to  get  their  individtial  firing  positions 
quickly  and  properly,  at  the  preliminary  command  for 
firing,  for  while  getting  the  best  available  cover  that 
enables  them  to  see  the  objective,  they  must  still  remember 
their  comrades,  and  observe  reasonable  intervals  and  a 
general  alignment  to  avoid  injuring  each  other. 

Actual  experience  is  necessary  for  this,  and  actual 
experience  shows  that  it  is  advisable  if  possible  to  indicate 
the  objective  before  actually  going  into  the  firing  position, 
in  order  that  the  men  may  take  their  positions  intelligently. 
To  illustrate  this,  take  the  troop  along  a  draw  and  dis- 
mount it  to  fight  on  foot  under  cover  of  a  slight  ridge  or 


DISMOUNTING  TO  FIGHT  ON  FOOT       115 

fold ;  direct  a  squad  leader  to  put  his  squad  on  the  ridge 
and  fire  at  a  certain  objective  now  out  of  sight.'  He  may 
well  lead  them  up  the  slope  in  close  order  till  they  can  just 
see  the  objective  over  the  crest  (hats  come  off  before 
they  reach  this  point),  where  he  halts  them,  and  points  out 
the  objective;  he  then  prescribes  the  interval,  deploys 
them  creeping,  advances  them  to  near  the  military  crest 
and  gives  the  preliminary  command  for  firing,  when  each 
seeks  his  own  firing  position.  This  assumes  time  and  de- 
liberation. Other  conditions  make  the  objective  unmis- 
takable, the  enemy  may  be  firing ;  or  you  may  need  greater 
haste  and  may  have  to  deploy  at  once  and  lead  your  line 
directly  to  the  firing  position,  trusting  to  quick  estimates 
of  the  situation,  and  quick  decisions  and  commands. 

49,  Dismounting  to  Fight  on  Foot. — This  is  an  im- 
portant role  for  cavalry,  a  development  of  its  use  which 
sprang  from  the  practical  common  sense  of  our  cavalry 
leaders  of  the  Civil  War.  Different  methods  may 
be  used  for  getting  a  certain  proportion  of  the  rifles  in  the 
firing  line,  the  remaining  men  caring  for  the  horses. 
Normally  one  man  out  of  each  four  remains,  and  they 
are  able  to  maneuver  the  led  horses,  keeping  them  under 
the  best  available  cover,  and  bringing  them  to  the  desired 
point  when  required.  Or  it  may  be  that  every  second  man 
only  will  be  dismounted,  or  again  that  all  will  be  dis- 
mounted, leaving  the  horses  immobilized. 

It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  object  to  be  attained, 
which  will  determine  the  method  and  manner  of  going  into 
the  fight.  While  in  the  normal  case,  the  three  men  of 
each  four  should  assist  each  other  in  linking  the  led 
horses,  all  going  out  to  the  line  together,  thus  getting  all 
the  rifles  on  the  line  in  the  least  time  and  with  the  best 
control,,  it  might  be  of  greater  value  to  get  even  a  few 
rifles  in  action,  when  it  would  be  found  advantageous  to 
signal  the  action  at  once  and  have  the  men  rush  to  the 
firing  line  individually  each  as  soon  as  he  can.  This  would 
be  done  only  in  an  emergency,  when  the  mounted  command 
had  been  unexpectedly  brought  under  a  close-range  fire, 


116  CAVALRY 

where  physical  conditions  made  an  immediate  fire  fight 
the  only  possible  line  of  action.  In  this  case  ordinary  fire 
control  is  out  of  the  question.  The  men  will  know  the 
range  (battle  sight)  and  objective  without  indication. 
Excitement  and  confusion  will  prevail  in  the  best  dis- 
ciplined troops.  They  do  not  need  to  be  trained  in  it, 
as  so  many  are.  In  reality  they  do  need  this  training :  to 
dismount  quickly  but  quietly ;  and  to  form  quickly, 
watching  for  signals,  each  squad  leader  leading  his  squad 
quietly  into  the  formation  or  position  ordered,  keeping 
his  men  cool  and  in  hand,  ready  to  open  at  command  an 
accurate  well  directed  fire  at  the  designated  object.  This 
takes  much  practice.  The  troop  commander  should  if 
possible  select  some  natural  cover  behind  which  to  dis- 
mount his  troop,  and  then  see  that  his  men  are  properly 
led  into  position  on  the  high  ground.  On  the  actual  bat- 
tlefield, dismounting  to  fight  on  foot  will  generally  call  for 
this  kind  of  work.  The  speed  of  the  horses  brings  us 
within  striking  distance,  there  we  leave  them  under  cover, 
and  quietly  form  our  dismounted  line  for  the  fire  fight. 
Absolute  discipline  and  control  are  necessary,  and  we 
would  have  lost  them  for  that  fight  if  the  men  had  rushed 
pell-mell  into  the  firing  line.  All  our  training  in  this  im- 
portant cavalry  function  should  be  along  these  lines.  If 
you  wish  to  show  the  troop  what  it  is  like  to  get  down 
and  open  fire  in  the  excitement  of  an  emergency,  arrange 
to  have  a  few  men  open  on  you  with  blanks  at  a  suitable 
place  unknown  to  your  men,  and  then  rush  them  into  a 
firing  position.     You  will  not  need  much  drill  at  this. 

Whatever  mechanism  is  used  in  dismounting  to  fight 
on  foot,  the  great  consideration  at  drill  is  to  train  the  troop 
to  work  promptly  but  without  excitement,  to  get  into  the 
firing  line  without  loss  of  control  or  organizati9n  as  a 
fighting  machine.  Platoon  chiefs  must  be  quick  in  sizing 
up  the  situation,  squad  leaders  looking  to  them  for 
directions. 

50.  Too  often  in  actual  service  led  horses  have  been 
stampeded  or  captured  because  the  commanding  officer 


DISMOUNTING  TO  FIGHT  ON  FOOT       117 

failed  to  leave  the  proper  guard  with  them.  He  had  better 
in  peace  time  training  acauire  the  habit  of  leaving  the 
proper  guard  with  his  led  horses  and  sending  out  proper 
vedettes  in  observation.  What  these  should  be  will  be 
determined  by  the  conditions  of  the  fight  and  of  the 
terrain. 

51.  The  captain  decides  whether  or  not  the  led  horses 
will  be  assembled,  and  instructs  the  guidon  sergeant  ac- 
cordingly. So,  upon  starting  to  the  rear  with  the  led 
horses,  every  man  must  be  taught  to  look  at  once  to  the 
guidon  for  a  signal  as  to  whether  they  shall  assemble  or 
seek  individual  cover.  If  assemble  is  signaled,  all  proceed 
toward  the  point  indicated  by  the  guidon  sergeant. 

52.  The  led  horses  should  be  kept  in  normal  order, 
and  faced  in  the  most  advantageous  direction  according 
to  conditions.  As  the  men  approach  to  mount,  horse- 
holders  recognizing  individuals  of  their  fours  may  often 
expedite  matters  by  calling  them  by  name  and  indicating 
their  horses.  Rifles  are  returned  to  the  boot  at  once,  so 
both  hands  may  be  used  for  control  in  unlinking.  You 
gain  in  speed  by  not  exciting  the  horses.  Straighten  out 
at  the  command  for  marching. 

53.  For  preliminary  instruction  in  working  dis- 
mounted men,  it  is  a  good  suggestion  to  have  the  troop 
count  threes,  which  will  more  truly  represent  conditions 
as  they  are  after  dismounting  to  fight  on  foot. 

Every  opportunity  to  drill  in  the  open  should  be  taken 
advantage  of  to  teach  the  men  this  nature  of  work  in 
varied  ground.  It  is  better  to  instruct  your  men  always 
to  take  such  position  upon  halting  as  will  give  them  best 
cover  and  yet  enable  them  to  see  to  fire  at  the  enemy; 
rather  than  to  instruct  them  to  take  a  designated  position ; 
for  example,  to  lie  down  upon  halting,  even  when  it 
makes  it  impracticable  for  them  to  see  to  fire.  At  any 
given  halt  some  men  may  be  lying  down,  some  kneeling  or 
sitting  and  some  standing,  each  having  taken  the  best 
advantage  of  his  ground  to  enable  him  to  see  to  fire 
accurately,  while  still  covered  as  much  as  possible. 


118  CAVALRY 

54.  Remember  that  training  in  the  advance  by  rushes 
or  by  creeping  should  be  conducted  in  this  school  with  a 
view  to  teaching  the  men  how  to  use  the  accidents  of  the 
ground  to  best  advantage,  and  particularly  to  training  the 
leader  and  his  men  in  working  together  through  varied 
ground  constantly  controlled  by  the  will  of  the  leader  ex- 
pressed by  signals.  They  must  advance  when  and  where 
the  leader  wishes,  halt  when  and  where  he  wishes,  fire 
when  and  how  he  wishes.  Let  the  enemy  be  represented 
and  firing  blank  ammunition,  and  enough  excitement  will 
prevail  to  render  this  so  realistic  as  to  aflFord  difficult 
conditions  for  leadership  and  real  training  for  all. 

55.  The  definition  of  fire  discipline  recognizes  the 
psychological  fact  that  peace  training  is  for  the  purpose 
of  inculcating  a  Habit  that  is  going  to  make  control  of  the 
men  on  the  battlefield  possible.  Train  your  men  to  execute 
cease  firing  at  the  whistle  signal.  Impress  upon  all  the 
heinousness  of  opening  fire  without  command.  Many  a 
beautifully  worked  out  plan  has  been  betrayed  just  before 
fruition,  by  some  excitable  soul  who  had  to  let  go  because 
he  saw  one  of  the  enemy.  Designate  a  real  objective, 
teach  the  men  the  habit  of  always  listening  for  it,  of  pick- 
ing it  up  correctly,  and  thereafter  aiming  at  it  steadily. 

56.  Battle  Exercises,  the  Troop  Mounted. — These 
prescribe  the  training  for  handling  the  troop  in  mounted 
combat.  This  drill  means  bold  riding  for  men  and  officers, 
and  close  attention  to  the  details  of  close  order  drill  to 
assure  the  delivery  of  the  charge  in  good  order.  It  is 
altogether  an  out-door  drill,  and  may  not  be  even  simulated 
in  the  riding  hall.  It  should  be  made  as  realistic  as  pos- 
sible, letting  the  men  know  in  each  case  against  what 
assumed  enemy  they  are  charging.  In  charging  again 
after  the  rally,  it  is  enough  to  call  out  "  there  they  come 
through  that  hole  in  the  fence,"  and  lead  at  them. 

This  is  the  same  class  of  field  work  for  the  troop  as 
discussed  for  the  squad,  and  the  same  remarks  as  to  its 
importance  obtain.     Particularly  in  the  case  of  troop  drill, 


COMBAT   PATROLS  119 

the  captain  should  invariably  set  forth  an  assumed  situ- 
ation, in  which  the  enemy  is  of  course  preferably  repre- 
sented, before  he  gives  the  command  Form  for  attack. 
In  this  way  only  can  the  men  of  the  troop  have  any  in- 
telligent conception  of  what  they  are  trying  to  do.  Only 
a  wholesome  amount  of  imagination  is  necessary  to  as- 
sume these  situations,  and  an  application  to  this  class  of 
drill  of  a  reasonable  amount  of  forethought  and  prepara- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  captain  will  be  more  than  repaid 
by  the  enthusiastic  interest  of  his  men.  This  drill  more 
than  any  other  will  satisfy  the  sentiments  that  made  the 
men  join  the  Cavalry. 

57.  Combat  Patrols. — Think  of  these  patrols  as  in 
observation  during  combat.  The  great  difficulty  with 
peace  training  is  that  these  patrols  almost  never  go  out  a 
sufficient  distance  to  give  timely  warning.  Acquire  the 
habit  of  using  them  intelligently  whenever  you  engage  the 
enemy,  mounted  or  dismounted.  And  equally  important, 
even  where  you  are  familiar  with  the  ground,  always  have 
your  ground  scouts  in  front  of  you ;  and  take  occasion  to 
use  them  in  situations  where  they  will  have  actual  condi- 
tions to  report,  which  will  require  responsive  action  on 
your  part.  You  will  not  only  train  them,  but  impress  upon 
all  the  importance  of  their  function. 

58.  In  the  attack  formation  the  captain  would  ride  out 
with  or  in  advance  of  the  attacking  line  to  observe  the 
enemy.  When  he  deemed  the  time  most  opportune  he 
would  indicate  the  exact  objective  for  the  charge  of  the 
attacking  line,  and  launch  it,  by  directing  To  the  charge. 
This  command  is  equivalent  to  saying  to  the  lieutenant — I 
now  turn  it  over  to  you,  attack  that  group  (indicating) — 
and  is  in  no  sense  a  command  to  be  yelled  with  excitement. 
And  the  lieutenant  should  now  proceed  with  studied  calm- 
ness, for  his  men  must  draw  sabre  with  sabre  knots  ad- 
justed, nor  excite  their  horses  so  as  to  render  impossible 
the  advance  with  perfect  cohesion.  It  is  a  real  test  of 
leadership,  the  conduct  of  a  charge.  You  must  watch  the 
men  and  horses  behind  you,  holding  them  steadily  in  line, 


120  CAVALRY 

and,  as  you  approach  the  enemy,  gradually  increase  the 
speed,  until  at  the  moment  of  shock  your  soHd  line  is 
sweeping  forward  at  the  limit  of  speed  for  your  slower 
horses. 

59.  Occasionally  include  the  practice  of  the  dispersion, 
representing  the  melee  of  actual  conditions,  lasting  about 
two  minutes ;  and  always  practice  a  prompt  withdrawal 
from  the  scene  at  high  speed  into  the  rally  in  line,  and  the 
return  to  the  field  by  troop  leading  ready  to  deliver  a  sec- 
ond charge  if  necessary.  The  troop  acting  alone,  the 
captain  may  rarely  lead  a  charge,  certainly  not  until  the 
final  one.  He  is  on  the  field,  detached,  where  he  may 
direct  the  launching  of  his  platoons. 

60.  Extended  Order,  Troop. — In  this  school  the  cap- 
tain learns  how  to  handle  the  teams  that  make  up  his  com- 
mand, and  trains  his  team  leaders  (platoon  chiefs  and 
squad  leaders)  to  execute  his  will  in  all  the  various  condi- 
tions that  may  arise  in  campaign  and  battle.  It  is  essen- 
tially an  out  door  drill,  demanding  imagination  and  re- 
source on  the  part  of  the  instructor.  The  mechanism  of 
the  movements  may,  however,  be  learned  in  the  drill  hall, 
though  all  realism  is  sacrificed.  This  drill  is  mostly  for 
officers  and  noncommissioned  officers,  and  the  squads 
should  come  to  it  well  trained  as  teams,  both  leaders  and 
men. 

61.  The  Squadron. — While  we  no  longer  drill  the 
squadron  in  extended  order,  squadron  battle  exercises  are 
of  the  utmost  importance.  Modern  battle  conditions  make 
the  squadron  appear  like  a  squad  team  and  require  that 
the  Major  handle  it  as  cleverly  and  surely.  Our  present 
Regulations  were  written  just  at  the  close  of  our  long 
experience  in  Indian  fighting,  when  the  "  troop  acting 
alone  "  was  most  important.  And  it  is  fortunate  that  this 
school  is  elaborated  upon,  for  in  it  is  found  the  funda- 
mental training  of  armies — the  making  of  good  troop 
teams.  These  teams  are  fought  by  the  majors  through 
directions  given  to  the  captains  rather  than  by  commands. 
In  fact  it  is  only  in  the  maneuver  preceding  the  mounted 


THE  FIRE  FIGHT  121 

combat  that  the  major  actually  gives  commands.  For 
most  of  you,  training  in  squadron  exercises  can  be  had 
only  at  maneuver  camps.  Let  it  be  your  one  object  to 
take  to  those  camps  a  well  trained  and  disciplined  team, 
which  may  appear  in  these  larger  affairs  with  credit  to 
you  and  satisfaction  to  your  squadron  commander. 

And  my  final  word,  for  the  squad  leader  as  well  as  the 
troop  commander,  is  that  in  this  training  you  avoid  excite- 
ment. If  you  could  see  even  well  trained  troops  rushing 
wild  eyed  about  the  maneuver  field,  cohesion  and  control 
gone  to  the  winds,  you  would  appreciate  the  joy  you  could 
bring  to  your  commanding  officers  by  keeping  cool  and 
collected,  with  your  men  under  quiet  control.  More  than 
one  umpire  at  maneuvers  has  been  known  to  say:  "  If  I 
could  see  one  organization  advance  in  the  attack  using  the 
mechanism  with  control,  I  could  die  happy."  And  this 
only  in  the  presence  of  blank  ammunition !  Would  it 
not  be  worth  while  to  train  with  this  especially  in  view, 
and  at  the  next  maneuver  exhibit  such  perfect  control  as 
to  bring  about  this  desired  consummation. 

62.  Cavalry  Raids. — These  are  unusual  operations  of 
cavalry.  They  would  mean  for  the  men  engaged  only 
quick,  arduous,  daring  work  under  their  leaders,  while 
they  themselves  bent  every  energy  to  the  care  of  their 
horses,  and  the  conservation  of  their  powers  of  endurance. 

63.  The  Fire  Fight. — Our  ability  to  fight  on  foot  has 
been  the  crowning  achievement  of  the  American  cavalry, 
and  is  recognized  as  a  very  important  role.  To  live  up  to 
our  traditions  the  American  caval^  discipline  must  admit, 
when  conditions  demand,  our  getting  down  from  our 
horses  and  putting  up  as  good  a  fire  fight  as  the  infantry. 
We  do,  not  expect  to  be  able  to  undergo  the  long  gruelling 
strain  that  the  infantry  is  capable  of — it  takes  a  special 
training  to  reach  that  peculiar  kind  of  discipline.  We 
should  not  be  called  upon  for  that  kind  of  fighting.  Our 
fire  fights  will  be  of  the  short  fierce  kind ;  seizing  a  posi- 
tion and  holding  it  till  the  infantry  comes  up,  smashing 
in  an  unexpected  attack  on  a  flank,  fighting  a  fierce  delay- 


122  CAVALRY 

ing  action  in  the  rear  guard,  etc.,  and  into  this  class  of  fire 
fight  we  will  take  the  same  type  of  discipline,  the  "  nothing 
can  stop  us  "  discipline,  that  we  use  when  mounted.  And 
this  is  the  reason  that  our  dismounted  drills  must  be  held 
with  elastic  lines,  plenty  of  interval,  so  that  marching,  even 
dismounted,  we  may  still  swing  along  with  that  air  of 
devil-may-care  freedom  and  carrying-through  at  any  cost. 

Yet  all  this  freedom  covers  a  nicety  and  perfection  of 
control,  through  our  system  of  leadership  and  command 
passing  from  the  highest  through  each  grade  down  to  the 
squad  leader  and  his  responsive  team.  To  secure  this  in 
the  fire  fight  on  the  battlefield,  the  mechanism  of  control 
must  be  thoroughly  understood  and  drilled  into  a  habit. 
This  is  set  forth  more  ably  in  the  present  Infantry  Drill 
Regulations  than  in  any  other  book  extant.  Cavalry  of- 
ficers may  well  study  it  therein,  especially  until  our  own 
manual  prescribes  one  for  us.  In  the  meantime,  to  enable 
you  to  prosecute  this  most  important  training,  and  to  give 
you  a  mental  picture  of  a  troop  engaged  in  an  infantry 
attack,  I  will  describe  it  in  considerable  detail. 

64.  The  direction  of  the  troop  in  the  fight  rests  with 
the  captain,  who  assigns  the  target,  may  indicate  the  kind 
of  fire,  even  the  range,  and  directs  when  the  fire  shall  be 
opened,  and  when  it  shall  cease.  The  actual  control  of  the 
fire  rests  with  the  platoon  chiefs  and  squad  leaders,  who 
normally  give  the  actual  commands  that  are  obeyed  by 
the  men  in  the  firing  line. 

To  illustrate  this,  assume  that  the  entire  troop  is  de- 
ployed in  skirmish  or  firing  line  with  one  yard  interval,  and 
is  advancing  upon  a  slight  eminence  that  will  ofler  a 
firing  position. 

The  captain  has  made  his  reconnaissance,  and  plans  to 
open  fire  at  this  point.  The  troop  may  be  actually  march- 
ing, or  halted  in  rear  of  the  position,  it  may  even  be  halted 
under  cover  at  the  position.  The  captain  decides  that  the 
conditions  warrant  control  by  platoon  chiefs,  that  he  had 
best  designate  the  range  and  objective  himself  and  that 
he  will  deliver  fire  at  will.     His  commands  are :  Fire  by 


THE  FIRE  FIGHT  123 

platoons  at  will,  at  800  yards,  at  the  enemy  behind  the 
first  fence  directly  in  front  of  the  white  house  in  our 
right  front,  commence  firing.  If  time  admitted  he  would 
best  assemble  his  platoon  chiefs,  point  out  the  particular 
portions  of  the  target  for  each,  describe  what  he  wanted 
and  then  command:  Fire  by  platoons,  at  will,  com- 
mence firing. 

65.  Upon  receipt  of'these  commands  the  platoon  chiefs 
would  lead  their  platoons  forward  as  described  for  the 
squad,  and  when  within  about  two  yards  of  the  firing 
position  command  Fire  at  will ;  when  the  men  would  seek 
their  individual  positions  and  fire  would  be  inaugurated 
as  described  in  the  school  of  the  squad.  Had  the  troop 
been  lying  under  cover  at  the  position  itself,  the  advance 
would  be  omitted,  the  first  command  of  the  platoon  chiefs 
being  Fire  at  will,  when  the  men  would  take  their  indi- 
vidual positions  as  before. 

Each  platoon  chief  now  conducts  the  fire  independently 
of  the  others  except  as  explained  below  for  covering  ad- 
vances and  the  approach  of  reinforcements. 

Had  the  captain  decided  that  conditions  required  the 
control  of  the  squad  leaders,  he  would  have  commanded 
Fire  by  squads,  and  the  squad  leaders  would  have  done 
as  described  for  the  platoon  chiefs,  the  latter  assisting  as 
might  be  necessary  in  carrying  out  the  captain's  orders. 

The  captain  may  desire  that  certain  groups  only  shall 
fire,  and  may  then  command  2d  and  3d  platoons  (or 
squads).  Fire  by  platoon  (or  squad)  and  then  proceed  as 
above. 

In  the  same  way  he  may  designate  certain  groups  only, 
or  all,  to  cease  firing,  to  speed  up  or  slacken  fire.  He  may 
change  the  target  for  one  group,  or  all,  may  change  the 
kind  of  fire,  or  may  give  a  different  range  to  different 
groups.  But  in  general  he  gives  all  possible  discretion  to 
his  subordinates  on  the  line  itself. 

Even  if  the  captain  directed  fire  by  platoon,  and  a 
platoon  chief  found  that  conditions  made  squad  control 
better,  the  platoon  chief  would  properly  fire  by  squad. 


124  CAVALRY 

And  conversely  the  platoon  chief  could  order  the  squad 
leaders  into  the  firing  line  at  any  time  when  conditions 
demanded  the  additional  rifles,  and  justified  his  attempt- 
ing sole  control  without  assistance.  Observe  that  nor- 
mally, even  in  fire  by  platoon,  the  squad  leaders  are  in  rear 
assisting  in  the  fire  control  of  their  own  squads. 

If,  as  might  rarely  happen,  the  captain  had  reason  to 
control  personally  the  firings  of  his  whole  troop,  he  would 
simply  omit  the  preparatory  command  Fire  by  platoon 
(or  squad),  and  give  the  desired  commands  as  does  the 
squad  leader  in  the  school  of  the  squad. 

These  observations  cover  the  delivery  of  fire  at  any 
given  position. 

66.  The  following  considerations  govern  the  advance 
in  the  attack.  You  will  have  only  the  ammunition  you 
carry  with  you,  and  that  brought  up  by  reinforcements, 
a  limited  supply  compared  with  your  enemy's  in  his  de- 
fensive position.  This  requires  that  you  conserve  it,  you 
may  not  fire  at  the  long  ineffective  ranges,  but  must  ap- 
proach as  near  as  possible  without  firing,  until  losses  be- 
come so  serious  that  further  advance  is  unreasonable. 
During  this  advance  to  the  first  firing  position  you  will 
take  that  formation  best  suited  to  conditions.  Thin  lines 
afford  the  least  target  to  long  range  rifle  fire;  lines  of 
squads  in  columns  of  files  with  over  30  yards  intervals  the 
least  target  for  artillery  fire.  No  formation  may  be  pre- 
scribed ahead  of  time,  it  is  up  to  the  ingenuity  of  the 
commanding  officer.  Conditions  may  forbid  that  loss  of 
immediate  control  attendant  upon  the  use  of  thin  lines. 
Avoidance  of  losses  may  not  be  the  sole  consideration ;  loss 
of  time,  loss  of  control,  may  be  more  disastrous.  The 
steady  advance  without  firing  should  have  an  inspiring 
effect  on  your  own  morale,  and  a  depressing  effect  on  that 
of  the  enemy,  who  sees  you  keep  coming  in  spite  of  all  his 
firing. 

The  first  halt  to  open  fire  must  be  made  before  the 
men's  endurance  has  been  strained  to  the  breaking  point, 
for  if  they  open  fire  of  their  own  will  without  command, 


THE  FIRE  FIGHT  125 

fire  discipline  is  gone,  and  it  will  be  all  but  impossible  to 
regain  it  in  this  fight.  In  the  general  case,  reasonably 
well  disciplined  troops  can  be  brought  up  to  within  about 
800  yards  before  opening  fire. 

67.  Having  been  hi.lted  here  by  the  severity  of  the 
enemy's  fire,  it  is  assumed  that  we  may  not  advance  further 
without  getting  ''  fire  superiority."  Fire  superiority  is  the 
fundamental  consideration  for  the  success  of  the  infantry 
attack  across  the  open.  It  means  that  all  parts  of  the 
enemy's  position  are  subjected  to  so  telling  a  fire  that  his 
men  do  not  dare  expose  themselves  to  aim  accurately 
enough  to  do  us  serious  damage.  How  do  we  know  when 
we  have  gained  it?  When  he  no  longer  gets  hits  in  our 
line — when  his  bullets  are  seen  to  go  wild,  and  our  losses 
become  inconsiderable  again.  To  gain  this  superiority  is 
the  problem.  He  has  more  ammunition  per  rifle  than  we, 
as  many  rifles  per  yard  of  front,  and  presumably  as  good 
a  man  behind  each  rifle.  Yet  we  must  shoot  him  down. 
This  is  done  by  bringing  more  rifles  to  bear  than  he  can, 
by  prolonging  our  front  beyond  his,  giving  us  a  converging 
fire ;  by  employing  "  fire  of  position  "  from  troops  advan- 
tageously posted  and  not  engaged  in  the  assault ;  by  oppor- 
tune machine  gun  fire;  by  the  covering  fire  of  our 
artillery  firing  upon  his  trenches  as  we  make  our  advances : 
and  above  all  by  such  fire  discipline  and  control  in  our  own 
line  as  to  make  our  fire  most  effective. 

68.  These  points  are  brought  out  to  make  you  appreci- 
ate what  is  necessary  in  your  training,  and  what  to  expect 
on  the  battlefield.  The  commanding  officer  directs  the 
artillery  fire,  but  you  hear  the  shrapnel  screeching  just 
over  your  head,  and  it  is  well  that  you  understand  that  it  is 
going  to  burst  in  the  enemy's  trenches  in  front  of  you, 
reducing  his  fighting  power  against  you.  Then  instead  of 
shrinking  with  dread  as  you  hear  it,  you  may  cheerfully 
wish  it  Godspeed  on  its  mission.  And  if  the  enemy's 
artillery  allows  it,  this  will  continue  until  you  are  within 
200  yards  of  the  position,  and  our  shrapnel  are  screaming 
by  not  90  many  feet  over  your  head.     You  will  also  per- 


126  CAVALRY 

haps  be  fired  over  by  hose-like  streams  of  bullets  from  the 
machine  guns,  and  showers  from  the  troops  in  position. 
It  is  part  of  infantry  training  and  discipline  to  accept  these 
cheerfully,  realizing  that  they  can  be  far  less  injured  by 
accidental  hits  than  they  would  be  by  the  enemy  but  for 
this  added  shower  of  bullets. 

69.  Returning  to  our  first  firing  position,  at  say  800 
yards  from  the  enemy,  and  assuming  that  our  command- 
ing officers  have  arranged  to  strive  for  fire  superiority, 
and  that  the  captain  gives  commands  for  opening  fire. 
What  is  your  responsibility  ?  To  meet  that  last  most  im- 
portant requirement,  the  delivery  of  the  most  effective  fire. 
Here  is  the  fruition  of  the  squad  leaders'  training  of  his 
team.  Has  he  brought  his  men  to  this  point  confident  in 
themselves  and  in  him?  Can  he  get  cool  response  to  his 
commands,  and  carefully  aimed  shots?  Leadership  will 
be  tested,  the  degree  of  discipline  that  has  been  attained. 
In  this  approach  and  in  opening  this  fire  are  you  and  your 
men  mutually  helping  the  morale  of  each  other,  as  do  the 
members  of  a  football  team  as  they  trot  out  on  the  field  to 
meet  their  strongest  rival — a  jolly  here,  a  quiet  word  there, 
and  a  sharp  jolt  to  another?  A  little  conversation  in  these 
tense  moments  will  often  dissipate  the  grip  that  apprehen- 
sion is  getting  on  your  faculties.  You  may  thus  help  your- 
self by  trying  to  help  others.  As  one  student  expressed 
it — "  I  have  studied  many  battles,  and  have  decided  that 
the  hardest  thing  to  control  in  battle  is  yourself."  I J  you 
can  busy  yourself  with  others  you  will  lessen  the  strain. 
If  you  must  think  of  self,  why  not  think  you  are  big  game 
shooting,  where  to  miss  your  aim  may  cost  your  life.  You 
would  force  yourself  to  be  steady  then,  why  not  now? 
You  would  not  begin  shooting  up  the  landscape  then  but 
would  hold  steady  for  a  good  target.     Do  the  same  now. 

70.  Assume  that  our  fire  has  reduced  the  enemy's  hits, 
and  we  have  attained  fire  superiority.  Now  comes  the 
advance.  You  cannot  shoot  the  enemy  out  of  a  defensive 
position ;  he  must  be  driven  out  by  actual  assault.  There- 
fore our  line  must  advance,  and  as  steadily  and  rapidly  as 


THE  FIRE  FIGHT  127 

possible.  While  actually  advancing  the  men  are  more  ex- 
posed and  are  unable  to  fire.  This  necessitates  advancing 
a  small  unit  at  a  time,  while  all  the  other  rifles  concentrate 
on  protecting  them  by  keeping  down  the  enemy's  fire. 
The  smaller  the  unit  advanced  the  safer;  but  also  the 
longer  it  takes.  The  general  rule  is  to  send  forward  each 
time  the  largest  unit  possible,  and  still  have  enough  rifles 
engaged  to.  maintain  fire  superiority.  From  any  one  of 
the  firing  positions,  the  first  unit  to  advance  may  be  a 
platoon,  the  next  a  squad,  then  two  platoons  might  go ;  it 
may  be  that  only  one  or  two  men  may  go  at  a  time.  The 
platoon  chiefs  decide,  unless  the  whole  troop  is  in  the  line 
and  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  captain,  when  he 
decides.  The  first  advance  is  made  normally  from  one 
flank  or  the  other,  and  having  been  inaugurated  must  be 
carried  on  as  promptly  as  fire  conditions  admit,  from 
that  flank  continuously  throughout  the  line  to  the  other 
flank.  Each  unit  is  led  forward  and  placed  in  the  new 
firing  position  as  described  in  the  school  of  the  squad. 
The  first  unit  forward  advances  to  a  designated  position, 
or  more  often  to  a  position  that  must  be  selected  by  its 
leader  as  he  leads  the  advance.  In  selecting  the  new  posi- 
tion the  leader  wi"  go  as  far  forward  as  seems  reasonable 
(not  to  exceed  about  60  yards  unless  under  cover)  and 
must  choose  a  position  that  will  be  good  for  the  rest  of  the 
line  coming  up  on  his  flank.  Each  unit  takes  up  the  firing 
promptly  upon  arriving  on  the  new  line,  and  with  its  fire 
helps  cover  the  advance  of  the  others.  These  advances 
may  be  made  by  running,  by  creeping,  even  by  rolling.  Fire 
conditions,  cover,  and  morale  all  are  determining  factors. 
The  advance  of  the  troop  in  attack  would  probably  never 
be  twice  alike.  The  smooth  working  of  its  mechanism 
depends  on  the  team  work  of  its  leaders,  on  their  mutual 
understanding  and  co-operation  ;  it  is  controlled  by  signals 
and  can  be  acquired  only  by  practice  in  varied  ground.  It 
may  happen  when  one  of  these  advances  is  ordered  that 
certain  individuals  will  feel  that  they  can  do  better  by 
remaining  under  their  present  cover.    The  Infantry  has  a 


128  CAVALRY 

noncommissioned  officer  behind  each  platoon  whose  func- 
tion it  then  becomes  to  urge  these  individuals  on  to  join 
their  fellows.  We  have  no  one  in  our  organization  for 
this  purpose  ;  and  where  lack  of  discipline  or  morale  seems 
to  make  it  advisable,  it  would  be  well  to  detail  a  man  in 
each  squad  for  this  purpose,"  instructing  him  to  see  that  all 
the  squad  moved  forward  together,  he  being  the  last  man, 
and  thus  rejoining  the  squad  in  the  firing  line  ^t  the  next 
position. 

71.  As  the  attack  progresses,  casualties  and  the  need 
for  a  heavier  firing  line,  make  reinforcements  necessary. 
In  the  early  stages  these  may  be  by  group.  But  in  the 
later  stages,  where  the  reinforcements  must  cross  a  fire 
swept  zone,  and  will  be  brought  up  under  cover  of  in- 
creased fire  from  the  firing  line,  they  will  come  deployed 
and  will  mingle  in  the  line  where  openings  are  found.  In 
large  aff^airs  these  reinforcements  will  be  from  other  or- 
ganizations, and  will  always  result  in  an  intermingling  of 
squads  and  command.  It  is  important  that  this  condition 
be  brought  about  at  drills,  in  order  that  when  it  comes  in 
battle  the  men  will  recognize  it  as  a  natural  condition,  and 
not  think  our  army  has  all  gone  to  pieces ;  will  know  how 
to  continue  control  and  command  even  in  this  mix-up,  and 
will  be  trained  to  reassemble  promptly  as  soon  as  condi- 
tions admit.  Reinforcements  should  never  be  sent  in  in 
driblets  that  will  be  absorbed  without  appreciable  effect. 
Their  arrival  on  the  line  should  be  felt  by  all  in  added 
strength,  morale,  and  power  to  push  forward  again.  Hence 
do  not  reinforce,  or  else  do  it  strongly. 

72.  You  will  be  given  an  additional  supply  of  ammuni- 
tion upon  entering  the  fight.  Every  round  is  precious. 
In  holding  down  the  enemy's  fire,  shots  that  just  skim  over 
the  entrenchments  are  very  valuable  in  moral  eflfect,  and 
you  must  expect  to  expend  them  for  this  purpose.  It  is 
the  duty  of  each  man  on  the  line  to  take  all  the  ammunition 
from  a  disabled  comrade  beside  him,  and  distribute  it  when 
opportunity  oflFers.  Reinforcements  will  bring  extra  am- 
munition which  you  also  pass  to  each  other.     These  are 


THE  FIRE  FIGHT  129 

your  only  sources  of  supply  during  the  fight,  and  you  will 
learn  by  experience  not  to  waste  any. 

73.  The  advance  continues  to  some  point  within  200 
yards  chosen  by  the  commanding  officer,  from  which  the 
final  charge  will  be  delivered.  He  strengthens  this  line 
his  utmost,  pours  in  from  it  the  heaviest  fire  possible,  and 
at  the  opportune  moment,  perhaps  as  his  last  reserves 
join,  orders  the  charge.  If  he  has  reached  this  point  with 
sufficient  force,  it  is  probable  that  the  enemy  will  not  await 
actual  contact,  but  will  break  and  run.  If  they  do  run, 
our  lines  must  steady  into  the  first  available  firing  position 
and  deliver  a  deadly  fire  into  the  fleeing  enemy.  Here  is 
where  we  get  the  casualties  that  even  the  score  of  ours 
during  the  costly  advance.  The  commanding  officer  will 
at  once  organize  a  pursuit  with  formed  troops ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  fleeing  target  disappears  our  intermingled 
troops  of  the  firing  line  must  be  quickly  reassembled  into 
their  proper  organizations. 

If  the  enemy  does  not  flee,  but  accepts  personal  combat, 
the  cavalryman  has  in  his  automatic  pistol  an  arm  for  close 
encounter  more  deadly  than  the  bayonet  and  -of  longer 
reach.  He  must  keep  his  rifle  in  hand,  however,  for  the 
execution  it  will  do  when  the  enemy  finally  runs. 

74.  The  fire  fight  has  been  discussed  thus  in  detail  that 
you  may  form  some  mental  picture  of  it  which  will  enable 
the  troop  commander  to  take  the  troop  through  this  train- 
ing in  varied  ground,  making  it  realistic  and  of  practical 
value  to  both  leaders  and  men.  In  this  he  should  assume 
reasonable  conditions  as  to  the  enemy,  and  by  changing 
these  conditions  make  them  require  on  hi&  part  the  various 
phases  of  the  combat  that  he  wishes  to  practice.  And 
these  conditions  should  in  each  case  be  explained  to  the 
men  so  they  may  get  the  benefit  of  an  intelligent  under- 
standing of  what  they  are  doing.  This  is  a  good  place  to 
use  "in  place  halt " — for  these  explanations  and  for  cor- 
rections. Do  not  deplore  having  the  exercise  move  slowly 
on  account  of  these  pauses.  It  will  be  but  the  more 
realistic.     The  real  trouble  is  to  make  it  slow  enough. 

9 


CHAPTER  VII 

FIELD  ARTILLERY 

1.  In  spite  of  the  tremendously  increased  importance 
of  the  artillery  during  this  great  war,  its  limitations,  and 
functions  remain  as  in  the  past.  The  field  artillery's 
sphere  is  now,  and  always  has  been,  limited  to  fire  action 
on  the  field  of  battle.  It  is  itself  extremely  vulnerable 
when  exposed  to  artillery  fire,  after  its  location  has  become 
known  to  the  enemy.  When  on  the  march,  and,  when  un- 
limbered  with  its  flanks  exposed,  it  must  rely  largely  for 
protection  upon  the  other  arms.  When  used  for  duties 
for  which  other  arms  are  designed,  such  as  reconnaissance 
in  force,  outposts,  guard  duty,  etc.,  not  only  is  it  incapable 
of  properly  performing  them,  but  its  strength  is  frittered 
away,  and  its  power  to  assist  the  other  arms  by  fire  action 
is  impaired.  This  comes  from  the  fact  that  every  mem- 
ber of  a  battery  is  a  cog,  or  substitute  cog,  in  a  firing  ma- 
chine. Strip  from  the  machine  a  number  of  its  cogs,  and 
its  firing  power  is  diminished,  but  leave  the  machine  intact, 
and  it  is  the  most  powerful  war  machine  in  existence, 
capable  of  operating  from  concealed  positions,  and  of 
concentrating  the  fire  with  terrible  effect  against  widely 
separated  targets  at  great  ranges. 

2.  The  Field  Artillery  has  always  been  a  much  desired 
branch  of  the  service,  combining  as  it  does  the  dash  of 
mounted  action  with  the  use  of  highly  efficient  mechanical 
instruments,  the  application  of  which  is  a  scientific  study 
of  great  interest. 

The  attractiveness  of  Field  Artillery  lies  in  its  effi- 
ciency. There  is  nothing  poorer  than  poor  artillery,  a 
burden  to  its  friends  of  other  branches  on  the  march,  and 
more  liable  to  inflict  losses  up>on  them  than  upon  the  enemy 
in  battle.  On  the  other  hand,  efficient  Field  Artillery  is 
a  joy  to  its  friends,  and  the  greatest  dread  to  the  enemy. 

Efficiency  can  be  attained  only  through  constant  study, 
and  hard  theoretical  and  practical  work.  No  arm  of  the 
130 


FIELD  GUNS  AND  HOWITZERS  131 

service  requires  so  much  time,  and  there  is  no  royal  road 
to  a  Field  Artillery  education. 

3.  Classification. — All  guns  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes :  field  guns  and  howitzers.  Field  guns  range  in  size 
from  the  mountain  gun,  carried  on  mules,  up  to  the  4.7- 
inch  and  6-inch  guns;  howitzers  from  the  light  trench 
mortar,  to  the  famous  42-centimeter  howitzer,  which  it  is 
said  cannot  be  moved  without  the  use  of  a  railway. 

4.  Field  Guns. — Their  chief  characteristic  is  that  they 
fire  comparatively  light  projectiles,  with  a  very  flat  trajec- 
tory, that  is,  the  course  of  the  projectile  from  the  muzzle 
to  the  target  is  a  rather  flat  curve,  like  that  of  a  rifle,  not 
rising  high  at  any  time  during  its  flight  nor  falling  abruptly 
at  the  target. 

In  appearance  the  barrels  of  field  guns  are  long  and 
thin.  If  they  fire  from  behind  cover,  such  as  a  hill,  they 
have  to  be  some  distance  in  rear  of  it,  in  order  to  **  clear 
the  crest." 

5.  Howitzers. — Their  chief  characteristic  is  that  they 
fire  comparatively  heavy  shells,  with  a  very  curved  trajec- 
tory. In  other  words,  in  order  to  hit  a  target,  they  throw 
a  shell  high  into  the  air,  which  then  descends  at  a  very 
steep  angle  upon  the  target.  Howitzers  are  able  to  fire 
over  cover  from  a  position  close  to  it,  thus  they  can  fire 
over  a  hill  while  hidden  close  under  its  slopes.  Their 
barrels  are  short,  fat,  and  stumpy.  When  firing  the 
barrels  point  high  into  the  air. 

6.  Mobility. — Artillery  is  further  classified  as  to  its 
mobility.  Light  field  artillery  is  that  normally  assigned  to 
the  infantry  division,  and  drawn  by  six-horse  teams. 
Heavy  field  artillery  is  that  assigned  to  army  corps  and 
armies,  for  use  in  the  demolition  of  trenches  and  field 
fortifications,  and  is  drawn  by  eight  horses,  or  motor 
trucks.  Siege  Artillery  is  that  of  such  calibre  that  horse- 
power is  not  sufficient  to  move  it,  and  is  used  for  extended 
operations  against  permanent  or  semi-permanent  fortifi- 
cations. 

7.  In   the   United   States   service   the   "  Mountain," 


132  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

*'  Light,"  and  the  3.8-inch  Howitzer  types,  are  classified  as 
Light  Field  Artillery.    Briefly  their  weapons  are : 

The  Mountain,  or  Pack,  gun,  carried  on  mule  back,  is 
a  Howitzer,  2.95  inches  in  calibre,  throwing  a  12^/^ -pound 
projectile,  with  a  maximum  range  of  about  4200  yards. 
A  new  type  of  mountain  gun  is  under  test,  of  3-inch 
calibre,  throwing  a  15-pound  projectile  to  maximum  range 
of  5500  yards. 

The.  Light  Artillery,  commonly  called  Field  Artil- 
lery, uses  a  gun  of  3-inch  calibre,  throwing  a  15-pound 
projectile  to  a  maximum  range  of  about  7200  yards.  The 
Light  Artillery  of  practically  all  nations  is  nearly  the 
same.  .It  is  designed  to  accompany  the  infantry,  and  its 
weight  and  resulting  power  is  determined  by  the  pulling 
capacity  of  a  six-horse  team.  In  our  service  the  same 
3-inch  gun  is  used  for  Horse  Artillery.  The  cannoneers 
are  mounted,  instead  of  riding  on  the  carriages,  and  the 
limbers  are  not  loaded  with  ammunition.  Thus  lightened, 
the  mobility  is  so  increased  that  this  equipment  may  be 
used  to  accompany  cavalry. 

The  3.8-inch  Howitzer  is  also  designed  to  accompany 
the  infantry.  Hauled  by  six  horses  it  fires  a  3c>-pound 
projectile  to  a  maximum  range  of  6000  yards. 

The  4.7-inch  Howitzer  is  sometimes  classed  as  Light 
Artillery,  when  drawn  by  eight  horses.  It  throws  a  60- 
pound  projectile  to  maximum  range  of  6700  yards.  This 
weapon  has  not  fulfilled  expectations,  and  is  to  be  with- 
drawn from  service. 

8.  In  the  United  States  service,  the  Heavy  Field  Artil-' 
lery  are  the  4.7-inch  field  gims,  throwing  a  projectile  of 
60  pounds  to  a  maximum  range  of  11,000  yards ;  and  the 
6-inch  Howitzer,  throwing  a  projectile  of  120  pounds  to 
a  range  of  10,000  yards. 

9.  Organization. — At  present  there  is  only  one  regi- 
ment, in  our  service,  which  is  armed  with  any  guns  of 
larger  than  3-inch  calibre.  It  is  proposed,  however,  to 
organize  the  Field  Artillery  Brigade  into  three  regiments 
instead  of  two,  and  these  may  have  battalions  of  different 


MATERIEL  1S3 

type  guns.  It  is  even  proposed  in  some  cases  to  have 
batteries  of  different  type  weapons  in  the  same  battalion, 
provided  that  the  mobiHty  of  the  batteries  is  about  the 
same.  Horse  and  Heavy  Field  Artillery  regiments  will 
probably  be  organized  with  three  battalions  of  two  bat- 
teries each,  while  the  organization  of  the  other  artillery 
regiments  will  remain  two  battalions  of  three  batteries 
each. 

ID.  Materiel. — The  3-inch  gun  is  of  built-up  nickel 
steel,  consisting  of  tube,  jacket,  locking  hoop,  and  clip. 
The  jacket  envelopes  the  rear  portion  of  the  tube  and 
forms  a  recess  for  the  breech  mechanism.  The  locking 
hoop  is  shrunk  on  the  tube  and  the  forward  end  of  the 
jacket. 

The  breech  block  is  of  the  interrupted  screw  type  and 
is  hinged  on  the  right  side  of  the  breech  recess  in  such  a 
manner  that  one  horizontal  motion  opens  and  closes  the 
breech  and  rotates  the  block. 

The  recoil  mechanism  consists  of  a  cylinder,  piston 
rod,  and  springs.  The  cylinder  is  filled  with  oil,  and  upon 
discharge,  the  oil  is  forced  through  grooves  in  the  piston 
rod  head.  The  combined  action  of  the  oil  pressure  and 
the  springs  takes  up  the  shock  of  discharge,  the  gun 
recoiling  about  45  inches  upon  the  recoil  guide  rails.  The 
expansion  of  the  springs  throws  the  gun  back  into  its 
firing  position. 

The  panoramic  sight,  with  which  each  gun  is  equipped, 
combines  the  properties  of  a  magnifying  telescope  with  an 
angle  measuring  instrument.  The  gunner  with  his  eye 
to  the  eye-piece  may  bring  into  the  field  of  view  a  mag- 
nified image  of  an  -object  situated  at  any  point  of  the 
horizon: 

The  elevating  and  traversing  mechanisms  are  entirely 
independent  of  each  other. 

Steel  plates  are  provided,  which  shield  the  cannoneers 
against  shrapnel  and  rifle  fire  from  the  front.  The  bat- 
tery commander  is  provided  with  a  telescope,  an  angle 
measuring  instrument  similar  in  character  to  the  pano- 


134  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

ramie  sight.     The  battery  specialists  are  provided  with 
wooden  rulers  by  means  of  which  angles  may  be  measured. 

11.  Projectiles. — The  kinds  of  projectiles  used  in  the 
field  artillery  are:  Common  steel  shell  (high-explosive 
shell),  common  shrapnel  and  high-explosive  shrapnel, 
Shrapnel  is  used  to  fire  against  objects  that  have  life,  such 
as  men  and  horses.  Shell  is  used  for  the  destruction  of 
objects,  such  as  houses,  walls,  batteries,  for  the  destruction 
of  trenches  and  men  in  them,  and  also  against  animate 
objects. 

12.  Fuzes. — The  kinds  of  fuzes  used  in  the  field 
artillery  are :  Frank  ford  Arsenal  Combination  Fuze,  a 
point  combination-time  and  percussion  fuze  for  use  in 
shrapnel ;  Base  and  point  percussion  fuzes,  for  use  in 
common  shell ;  Base  detonating  fuze  for  high-explosive 
shell. 

13.  Powders. — The  powder  charge  is  a  nitrocellulose 
powder  composed  of  cylindrical  grains  with  7  perforations 
running  lengthwise  to  facilitate  ignition.  Black  powder 
is  used  for  saluting  charges,  and  for  ignition  in  smokeless 
powder  charges.  The  high  explosive  for  the  shell  is 
called  Explosive  "  D." 

Our  Ordnance  Department  is  now  conducting  tests 
with  a  powder  which  is  Cashless  as  well  as  smokeless.  It 
is  the  same  in  form  and  size  of  grain  as  the  smokeless 
powder,  but  of  a  grayish  color.  Using  this  powder,  it  is 
impossible  to  detect  the  flash  of  the  gun,  even  in  the  open, 
at  a  distance  of  two  miles  ;  standing  close  to  the  gun,  only 
a  pear  shaped  irridescent  glow  is  seen  in  front  of  the 
muzzle  at  the  moment  of  discharge.  At  night,  mounted 
defilade  (the  height  of  a  mounted  man)  would  completely 
conceal  the  flash.  Pressures  developed  by  this  powder 
have  not  been  uniform,  but  it  is  believed  that  this  defect 
will  soon  be  remedied. 

14.  Ammunition  and  Fuzes. — Fixed  ammunition  is 
used  in  the  3-inch  field  guns,  and  is  made  up  as  either 
common  shrapnel,  high-explosive  shrapnel,  or  steel  shell. 
Each  round  is  issued  with  projectile  filled  and  fuzed.    The 


AMMUNITION— SHRAPNEL  185 

weight  of  each  projectile  is  15  pounds,  and  the  total  weight 
of  one  round  is  18^  pounds.  The  propelling  charge  for 
all  projectiles  is  of  smokeless  (nitrocellulose)  powder.  It 
is  contained  in  the  brass  cartridge  case  in  contact  with  the 
primer  at  one  end,  which  ignites  it,  and  the  projectile  at 
the  other.  The  muzzle  velocity  for  shrapnel  is  1700  feet 
per  second.  That  of  shell  is  1640  feet.  All  projectiles 
have  a  copper  rotating  band  1.2  inches  from  the  base. 
The  band  engages  in  the  rifling  of  the  bore  of  the  piece,  and 
gives  the  projectile  a  rapid  rotation  about  its  long  axis 
during  flight.  This  causes  it  to  travel  straight,  point  on, 
without  tumbling. 

15.  Common  Shrapnel. — "  In  the  shrapnel  at  present 
issued,  the  case  is  of  steel  with  a  solid  base  and 
open  at  the  front.  The  front  or  mouth  pf  the  case  is 
closed  by  a  steel  head  screwed  in,  which  carries  the  Frank- 
ford  Arsenal  Combination  Time  and  Percussion  Fuze. 
The  bursting  charge  of  2^  ounces  of  black  powder  is  in 
the  base  and  is  covered  by  a  diaphragm.  The  diaphragm 
supports  a  central  tube  which  extends  from  the  bursting 
charge  in  the  base  of  the  shrapnel  to  the  fuze  in  the  head, 
thus  aff'ording  a  conduit  for  the  flames  from  the  fuze  to 
the  bursting  charge.  A  stopper  of  dry  gun  cotton  is  at 
the  base  of  the  tube  to  assist  in  igniting  the  bursting  charge 
and  also  to  prevent  the  loose  grains  of  the  bursting  charge 
from  getting  into  the  tube.  The  case  is  filled  with  252 
balls  about  3^  inch  in  diameter,  which  are  assembled 
around  the  central  tube  and  held  in  place  by  a  smoke- 
producing  composition. 

When  the  bursting  charge  in  the  base  of  the  shrapnel 
is  ignited  the  head  is  stripped,  and  the  balls  shot  out  in 
very  mych  the  same  manner  as  from  a  shotgun.  The 
bullets  are  scattered  (due  to  the  rotation  of  the  projec- 
tile) in  a  cone,  covering  an  irregular  oval-shaped  area  of 
the  ground  in  front.  The  bursting  charge  increases  the 
velocity  of  the  bullets  by  from  250  to  300  feet  per  second. 
The  smoke-producing  composition  bums,  making  a  white 
ball  of  smoke,  which  helps  to  indicate  the  point  of  burst." 


136  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

1 6.  "  Common  Steel  Shells,  also  called  high-explosive 
shells,  have  a  pointed  ogival  head.  The  body  is  hollowed 
out  to  take  the  larger  bursting  charge  of  Explosive  "  D." 
The  base  detonating  fuze  is  screwed  into  and  closes  the 
opening  in  the  base  of  the  projectile.  The  base  cover  is 
put  on  over  the  fuze  and  is  intended  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  powder  gases  entering  the  shell  cavity  and  causing 
a  premature  bursting  of  the  projectile.  This  shell  bursts 
on  impact,  and  with  great  force  exerted  in  all  directions 
(front,  rear,  sides,  up,  and  down)  and  is  a  powerful 
instrument  for  the  destruction  of  material  objects." 

17.  Ehrhardt  High-explosive  Shrapnel. — "This  is  a 
high-explosive  shrapnel  and  is  fitted  with  a  combination 
fuze,  and  a  high-explosive  head.  In  time  action,  the  case 
is  not  ruptured  upon  the  explosion  of  the  bursting  charge, 
but  the  head  is  forced  out  and  the  balls  are  shot  out  of  the 
case  with  an  increase  of  velocity.  In  the  meantime  the 
head  continues  its  flight,  detonating  on  impact.  All  high- 
explosive  shrapnel  is  detonated  by  means  of  the  percussion 
use.  If  the  fuze  be  set  at  "  safety,"  or  for  a  time  of  flight 
greater  than  the  actual  time  of  flight,  this  shrapnel  may  be 
used  in  lieu  of  high-explosive  shell.  Upon  impact  a  high- 
explosive  shrapnel  is  detonated  by  means  of  the  percussion 
element  of  the  combination  fuze,  the  head  being  detonated 
first,  which  detonation  causes  the  sympathetic  detonation 
of  the  high-explosive  matrix  surrounding  the  balls." 

18.  Effects  of  Projectiles. — Nothing  of  a  military 
nature  is  requiring  greater  scientific  research  than  the 
eflfects  produced  by  artillery  projectiles.  Some  observa- 
tions taken  from  reports  of  military  observers  during  the 
present  war  are  given  to  illustrate  the  destruction  produced 
by  various  projectiles  of  diflferent  calibres. 

Shrapnel. — Against  troops  in  the  open  this  is  terribly 
effective,  if  properly  handled.  It  has  little  efTect  against 
"ntrenched  troops,  or  those  protected  by  gim  shields,  other 
than  to  keep  them  under  cover.  It  will  ignite  buildings 
more  readily  than  shell,  but  is  otherwise  useless  against 
fortifications  or  field  works  of  any  nature. 


SHRAPNEL  137 

19.  For  mid-ranges  shrapnel  is  timed  to  burst  at  a 
height  of  about  23  feet,  and  when  so  bursting  in  front  of 
advancing  troops,  has  a  deadly  and  effective  stopping 
effect.  A  single  well  burst  shrapnel  has,  in  this  war,  been 
known  to  cause  47  casualties  in  a  single  platoon,  which  was 
caught  in  column  of  fours  on  a  road.  Although  shrapnel 
manufactured  for  the  United  States  Held  Artillery  is, 
when  bursting  at  the  most  effective  height,  designed  to  pro- 
duce one  hit  per  square  yard,  effective  shrapnel  balls 
actually  have  a  dispersion  over  a  space  about  200  yards  in 
depth  and  about  20  yards  in  width,  within  which  there  will 
be  one  hit  per  square  yard.  Men  in  two  or  three  consecu- 
tive lines  may  be  hit  by  bullets  from  a  single  shrapnel.  Its 
chief  use  against  men  in  trenches  is  that  it  prevents  them 
from  firing.  It  can  produce  only  a  local  effect  on  a  trench, 
owing  to  the  comparative  weakness  of  the  bursting  charge. 

20.  For  efficient  shrapnel  fire,  the  observing  officers 
must  see  simultaneously  both  air  bursts  and  the  target,  and 
be  able  to  communicate  the  necessary  corrections  to  the 
battery.  Badly  adjusted  shrapnel  fire  is  ineffective.  Bul- 
lets from  a  very  high  burst  lose  their  velocity  rapidly,  and 
often  will  not  even  penetrate  clothing.  Bursting  very  close 
to  the  ground,  or  upon  impact,  they  produce  only  local 
eft'ect.  The  angle  of  fall  from  high  bursts  is  steep,  while 
effective  bullets  from  low  bursting  shrapnel  follow  nearly 
a  horizontal  path.  Hence  soldiers  in  the  open  in  the  pres- 
ent war  are  trained  to  stand,  when  under  fire  from  shrapnel 
bursting  high,  and  to  lie  down  when  it  is  bursting  low. 

21.  Shrapnel  bullets  will  not  damage  the  walls  of  a 
house,  though  they  will  pierce  windows,  doors,  and  prob- 
ably the  roof.  Hence  under  shrapnel  fire  the  lower  rooms 
of  a  house  are  safer  than  the  upper.  If  a  house  is  to  be 
held,  the  windows  should  be  barricaded  by  mattress,  etc. 

22.  An  unburst  shrapnel  projectile  will  knock  a  hole  in 
any  but  the  thickest  walls,  but  the  damage  done  inside  will 
not  be  great,  and,  entirely  local.  There  will  be  no  tendency 
to  blow  the  house  down,  and  only  those  in  the  narrow  path 
of  the  projectile  and  its  bullets  will  be  injured.     Many 


138  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

such  shrapnel  may  pass  through  a  wall  without  knocking 
it  down,  the  holes  being  clean  and  comparatively  small. 

23,  Shell. — Although  commonly  understood  to  be  a 
projectile  for  use  against  inanimate  objects  only,  a  thin 
walled  shell  carrying  a  heavy  high-explosive  charge  has 
come  to  be  largely  used  in  the  present  great  war,  not  only 
against  intrenchments  and  fortifications  of  all  kinds,  but 
even  against  troops  in  the  open.  It  is  more  effective  in 
width,  than  in  depth,  and  bursting  immediately  over  a 
trench,  will  have  a  great  effect  for  a  distance  of  nearly 
50  yards  in  all  directions  perpendicular  to  its  flight. 

34.  The  type  preferred  for  use  against  infantry  is 
known  as  "  delayed  impact  fuze,"  in  which  the  shock  of 
impact  arms  the  fuze  and  the  projectile  then  ricochets  and 
bursts  about  a  yard  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  with 
terrible  effect.  This  requires  short  enough  ranges  to  al- 
low flat  trajectories,  otherwise  the  angle  of  fall  is  so  steep 
that  the  shells  do  not  ricochet. 

25.  In  considering  the  relative  value,  against  advancing 
infantry,  of  shrapnel  and  high-explosive  shell,  the  moral 
effect  of  the  latter  must  be  considered.  The  detonation  of 
a  high-explosive  shell  is  terrific,  whereas  the  shrapnel  burst 
makes  comparatively  little  noise.  The  artillery,  in  re- 
pelling an  infantry  attack,  attempts  to  create  a  curtain  of 
fire  in  front  of  them.  This  curtain  seems  to  be  more 
real  and  more  effective  when  high-explosive  shell  is  used. 
It  is  probable  that  the  actual  number  of  casualties  from 
shrapnel  is-greater,  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  make  infantry 
pass  the  area  in  which  high-explosive  shells  are  bursting 
with  dreadful  detonations,  accompanied  by  clouds  of 
smoke  and  whirl  of  flying  steel  fragments.  Moreover,  the 
actual  losses  from  shell  fire  are  undoubtedly  greater  than 
was  at  first  supposed,  as  the  small  particles  of  shell  cause 
many  slight  wounds,  and  it  is  found  that  most  men  take 
advantage  of  any  decent  excuse  to  retire  to  the  rear. 

26.  The  high-explosive  shell  is  the  only  projectile  used 
in  the  attack  of  intrenchments,  bombproofs,  dug-outs,  etc. 
The  larger  the  calibre  of  the  shell,  the  more  effective  its 


SHELL  139 

fire.  Tests  with  our  6-inch  Howitzers  prove  con- 
clusively that  bombproof s,  covered  with  12  feet  of  dirt, 
do  not  provide  adequate  protection  against  these  weapons. 
It  is  reported  that  shells  from  12-inch  Howitzers  penetrate 
medium  earth  to  a  depth  of  30  to  40  feet,  their  explosion 
forming  craters  sometimes  100  feet  in  diameter. 

27.  A  shell  bursting  after  penetrating  a  trench  produces 
a  doubly  violent  explosion  due  to  the  confining  effect  of  the 
trench  walls.  Not  only  will  men  in  that  length  of  the 
trench  be  killed,  but  walls  knocked  down,  and  traverses, 
unless  very  strongly  built,  demolished.  Where  the  shell 
has  buried  itself  in  the  ground,  its  explosion  causes  the 
walls  to  fall  in,  burying  the  men  and  often  producing 
great  effect  to  the  rear,  the  force  of  the  shell  explosion 
taking  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  going  back  through 
the  ground  which  the  shell  pierced. 

28.  Shrapnel  is  absolutely  useless  in  the  destruction  of 
wire  entanglements,  and  even  the  number  of  shells  required 
to  open  a  small  passage  is  enormous.  It  is  stated  on  good 
authority,  that  over  300  shells  of  3-inch  calibre  are  re- 
quired to  demolish  a  barbed  wire  entanglement  25  yards 
in  depth,  and  of  a  width  which  will  permit  a  squad  in 
column  of  fours  to  pass.  With  guns  of  larger  calibre,  the 
number  of  shells  required  is,  of  course,  less. 

29.  The  proportion  now  being  used  in  the  European 
War  is  as  high  as  four  shells  to  one  shrapnel.  It  is,  how- 
ever, questionable  as  to  whether  this  proportion  would 
obtain  were  the  operations  carried  on  against  less  perma- 
nently prepared  positrons.  In  our  service  the  proportion 
of  shrapnel  is  very  greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  shell.  Our 
3-inch  shell,  moreover,  carries  only  about  one-third  as 
much  high-explosive  as  does  the  thin  wall  type  of  shell 
described  above,  and  it  is  not  provided  with  a  delayed 
action  fuze,  which  permits  the  projectile  to  burst  on 
ricochet  after  impact. 

30.  Although  the  efficiency  of  the  high-explosive  thin 
wall  shell  cannot  be  doubted,  reports  indicate  that  between 
three  hundred  and  five  hundred  French  field  guns  have 


140  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

been  demolished,  due  to  premature  detonation  of  these 
projectiles.  In  considering  the  adoption  of  this  type  of 
projectile  our  Ordnance  Department  hesitates  to  adopt  a 
shell  which  is  at  the  present  time  almost  sure  to  cause  the 
destruction  of  many  field  guns  and  their  gun  crews. 

It  is  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  French  field  guns 
have  probably  fired  several  thousands  of  these  shells  per 
gun,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  the  French  authorities  ex- 
pected to  have  premature  detonation  of  one  shell  in  every 
seven  thousand.  Therefore  their  loss  of  three  hundred 
guns  was  probably  within  their  calculations. 

Training 

31.  The  object  of  all  mobile  artillery  training  is  ability 
to  march  and  ability  to  shoot.  Marching  includes  profi- 
ciency in  all  operations  necessary  to  bring  the  guns  and 
ammunition  into  action,  at  the  proper  time  and  place ;  and 
proficiency  in  driving,  care  of  horses,  fitting  of  harness 
and  equipment,  camping,  and  in  the  occupation  of 
positions. 

32.  Marching. — Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  a 
successful  artillery  march.  All  officers  and  noncommis- 
sioned ofhcers  must  be  ever  ready  to  save  the  horses,  by 
correcting  faults  of  driving,  by  constantly  re-adjusting  the 
harness  and  by  seeing  that  the  horses  are  cared  for  at  the 
halts. 

33.  The  batteries  should  alternate  in  leading  the 
column  for  the  day,  and  the  platoons  should  alternate  in 
leading  the  battery.  Each  section  in  the  battery  should 
take  its  turn  in  hauling  the  battery  wagon,  and  the  battery 
store  wagon.  No  carriages  should  be  permitted  to  fall 
out  of  the  column  except  by  order  of  an  officer,  in  which 
case  the  vacant  space  should  be  maintained  until  the  car- 
riage regains  its  place,  at  the  next  halt,  without  increase 
of  gait. 

34.  When  the  command  "  Halt  "  is  sounded  at  the  head 
of  the  column  during  the  march,  all  carriages  should  be 
immediately  hauled  well  to  the  right  of  the  road,  leaving  at 


MARCHING  141 

least  half  of  the  road  clear  for  traffic.  All  horses,  includ- 
ing officers'  mounts,  should  be  held  on  the  same  side  of 
the  road  as  the  battery.  Collars  should  be  at  once  un- 
locked, and  placed  on  the  blanket  immediately  in  front  of 
the  pommel  of  the  saddle,  wiping  the  inside  clean.  If  the 
weather  is  hot,  the  horses'  nose  and  mouth  should  be 
sponged  out,  when  necessary  using  water  from  the  can- 
teens. The  horses'  shoulders  should  be  well  massaged, 
the  cannoneers  assisting  with  the  off  horses.  Cinchas 
should  be  tested  by  the  officers.  Exhausted  animals  must 
be  replaced  by  spare  horses,  before  they  have  become  too 
exhausted  to  keep  up  with  the  column.  In  case  the  road  is 
muddy,  the  martingales  and  side  straps  should  be  wiped 
clean.  It  must  be  impressed  upon  the  men  that  the  halt  is 
made  for  the  benefit  of  their  horses,  and  the  entire  time 
should  be  devoted  to  the  care  and  replacing  of  horses,  re- 
adjustment of  equipment,  etc.  Sufficient  time  should  be 
given  after  the  command  "  Attention  "  has  sounded,  to 
admit  locking  the  collars ;  and  no  collars  should  be  placed 
in  position  until  "  Attention  "  has  been  sounded. 

35.  Double  distances  may  be  maintained  between  car- 
riages and  increased  distances  between  batteries  at  the 
discretion  of  the  battery  commanders. 

36.  During  a  march  the  battery  commander  should  not 
ride  at  the  head  of  the  battery,  where  his  presence  is  rarely 
needed,  but  alongside  the  column,  where  faults  usually 
occur.  When  the  battery  leaves  the  park,  he  should  halt 
and  let  the  battery  pass  him,  observing  carefully  t\try- 
thing  pertaining  to  the  personnel,  horses,  equipment,  fit  of 
harness,  etc.  He  should  then  trot  slowly  up  on  the  oth,cr 
side,  thus  observing  the  condition  of  practically  everything 
in  hisbatter^'. 

37.  In  going  down  hills,  the  breeching  should  not  be 
permitted  to  touch  the  horses,  the  carriage  being  held  back 
by  the  brake — as  it  is  much  harder  on  the  horse  to  hold 
back,  than  it  is  to  pull.  The  cannoneer  on  the  brake 
should  be  required  to  be  alert,  and  apply  the  brake  properly 
for  even  slight  grades. 


142  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

38.  Driving. — The  training  of  the  driver  begins  with 
riding,  and  is  completed  when  he  can  properly  ride  one 
horse  and  drive  another.  He  must  be  shown  the  necessity 
for  each  pair  in  a  team  acting  as  part  of  a  unit  so  that  every 
hors'e  of  the  six  will  do  his  share  of  the  work.  Authorities 
give  the  average  life  of  an  artillery  horse  during  the  early 
days  of  the  Great  War  (when  marching  was  done)  as  less 
than  two  weeks.  This  emphasizes  the  necessity  for 
thorough  instruction  of  drivers,  in  order  that  they  may 
know  how  to  conserve  their  teams. 

39.  On  the  march  each  horse  must  do  his  share  of  the 
work.  Every  driver  should  keep  the  traces  of  the  pair 
ahead  of  him  tight.  If  slack,  his  own  pair  are  doing  their 
work.  Old  and  experienced  drivers  sometimes  try  to  save 
their  horses  by  keeping  their  traces  seemingly  tight,  with- 
out permitting  them  really  to  pull.  Careful  observation  on 
the  part  of  officers  will  prevent  this. 

40.  The  drill  regulations  prescribe  the  proper  seat,  and 
the  methods  of  riding  and  driving,  and  should  be  carefully 
studied.  The  wishes  of  the  rider  are  conveyed  to  the 
horse  by  means  of  the  reins,  legs,  and  whip.  The  horse 
must  be  kept  up  on  the  bit,  the  near  horse  by  the  driver's 
legs,  the  off  horse  by  the  whip.  If  the  whip  be  not  skil- 
fully used,  the  near  horses  start  the  carriage  and  regularly 
do  the  greater  share  of  the  work.  The  proper  use  of  the 
whip  is  a  difficult  thing  to  learn,  so  difficult  that  many 
batteries  prohibit  its  use  entirely.  Generally  speaking,  a 
driver  who  raises  his  whip  and  strikes  his  off  horse,  in- 
stead of  putting  him  into  the  bit,  drives  him  away  from 
it,  and  out  of  the  line  of  draft.  Many  horses  are  ruined 
for  artillery  purposes  by  fear  of  the  whip,  and  when  work- 
ing on  the  off  side,  travel  as  far  as  possible  away  from  the 
driver,  devoting  all  their  energies  to  pulling  sideways,  in- 
stead of  in  the  line  of  draft.  The  whip  should  be  skilfully 
applied  to  the  off  horse  on  his  off  side  behind  the  saddle, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  horse  will  not  see  it.  This  will 
urge  the  off  horse  gently  forward,  somewhat  as  the  driver's 
legs  do  the  near  horse.    Except  in  the  rarest  cases,  and 


FITTING  HARNESS  148 

only  by  direction  of  an  officer,  should  the  whip  be  used 
for  punishment.  ^ 

Fitting  Harness. — The  variety  and  shapes  of  collars 
issued  by  the  Ordnance  Department,  makes  it  possible  to 
fit  any  horse,  no  matter  how  poor  his  conformation  may 
be.  Horses  should  be  fitted  with  the  smallest  sized  col- 
lars, let  out  to  the  limit,  in  order  that  they  may  be  taken  up 
sufficiently  to  fit  the  horse  as  he  losses  flesh  on  the  march. 
Too  tight  a  collar  will  do  less  harm  than  one  too  loose. 

41.  To  fit  a  collar,  it  should  be  placed  well  back  on  the 
horse's  shoulders,  into  the  position  it  will  occupy  when  he 
is  in  draft;  then  take  hold  of  the  collar  by  the  front  flange, 
on  the  side  opposite  to  the  horse's  mane,  and  pull  it  directly 
outward  from  the  neck.  The  collar  should  be  loose  enough 
to  permit  the  hand  being  inserted  flatwise  under  the  collar 
all  along  the  side  toward  this  pull.  Draft  plates  should  be 
put  up  at  the  highest  hole,  in  order  to  bring  the  draft  as 
far  up  on  the  shoulders  as  possible.  There  may  be  some 
horses,  on  account  of  their  straight  shoulders,  which  re- 
quire the  draft  plate  down  to  the  centre  hole,  but  they  are 
very  rare. 

42.  The  draft  spring  which  is  located  directly  under- 
neath the  draft  plate,  should  be  closely  watched,  as  it 
easily  collapses.  When  this  occurs  it  should  be  immedi- 
ately replaced  by  a  new  one.  As' the  wheel  pair  usually 
does  more  work  than  the  others,  collapsed  collars  are  more 
frequently  found  there. 

43.  Tight  clinching  should  be  avoided,  as  it  is  not  only 
uncomfortable  for  the  horse,  but  also  produces  cincha 
boils,  difficult  to  heal.  The  cincha  should  be  adjusted  just 
tight  enough  to  permit  the  flat  of  the  hand  being  inserted 
between  the  cincha-ring  safe  and  the  horse's  side. 

44.  The  breeching  should  be  adjusted  so  that  it  will  lie 
in  prolongation  of  the  sidestraps,  and  just  below  the  points 
of  the  buttocks.  Except  for  drill  purposes,  the  breeching 
should  be  so  loose  that  it  cannot  impede  the  action  of  the 
horse  in  draft. 

45.  With  our  present  collars  it  is  difficult  on  prolonged 


144  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

marches  to  avoid  sores  on  the  top  of  the  neck  of  the  wheel 
horses,  due  to  the  weight  of  the  pole,  and  also  the  com 
ponent  of  down  pull  caused  by  the  single  tree  being  lovvc. 
than  the  point  of  adjustment  of  the  trace  to  the  collar.  To 
avoid  this  component  of  down  pull,  the  trace  should  be 
normal  to  the  rear  line  of  the  collar,  which  may  be  accom- 
plished by  running  the  trace  through  loops  in  a  strap  over 
the  back  of  the  near  horse  behind  the  saddle,  and  over  the 
seat  of  the  saddle  of  the  off  horse.  This  transfers  the 
downward  component  of  draft  from  the  horse's  neck  to 
his  back. 

46.  With  the  lead  horses,  instead  of  a  downward  com- 
ponent of  draft,  there  is  an  upward  component,  which 
causes  their  collars  to  ride  up,  and  tends  to  choke  them. 
This  component  may  be  transmitted  to  the  cinchas  by  run- 
ning the  lead  traces  through  loops  buckled  to  the  cincha 
rings. 

The  entire  subject  of  harness  fitting  is  ably  described 
in  an  article  by  Major  Charles  P.  Summerall  in  the  Janu- 
ary-March, 1913,  Field  Artillery  Journal. 

47.  Camping. — This  dififers  from  other  arms  only  in 
the  presence  of  the  horses  and  carriages ;  and  system 
enables  the  battery  commander  to  see  that  horses,  men  and 
materiel  are  properly  cared  for  with  the  least  friction. 

The  battery  is  parked,  the  picket  line  stretched  to  the 
caisson  body  wheels,  and  the  horses  cared  for.  Hay  is 
fed,  to  keep  the  horses  quiet,  and  take  the  edge  oflf  their 
hunger,  while  they  are  groomed,  backs  and  legs  massaged, 
etc.  They  are  then  watered  and  fed  grain,  and  the  grain 
bags  then  refilled  for  the  reveille  feed.  The  officers  give 
close  attention  to  shoeing,  treatment  of  injuries,  and  gen- 
eral care  of  the  horses. 

Then  camp  is  made.  The  men  generally  prefer  to 
sleep  under  the  paulins,  rather  than  in  shelter  tents,  and 
this  is  more  comfortable,  particularly  in  stormy  weather. 

48.  Watering. — In  all  mounted  commands,  the  way 
this  duty  is  performed  is  the  best  indication  of  their  effici- 
ency, and  in  campaign,  will  largely  determine  the  ability 


CAMPING  AND  WATERING  145 

of  the  command  to  march.  The  more  formal  this  duty  is 
made,  the  better  it  is  performed,  and  the  less  time  it  will 
take.  No  men  are  permitted  to  attend  water  call  with 
sleeves  rolled  up,  or  otherwise  disorderly  in  appearance. 

This  duty  is  so  important  that  it  is  here  laid  down  in 
detail  for  a  battery.  The  captain  is  always  present,  if  pos- 
sible. The  horses  are  led  from  the  line  and  the  men 
stand  to  horse.  All  are  mounted  at  command,  and  marched 
to  water.  The  battery  is  formed  at  the  watering  place,  in 
column  of  platoons  or  in  column  of  sections,  according  to 
the  facilities  of  the  place. 

If  buckets  are  used,  they  are  arranged  in  line  in  front 
of  the  platoon  or  the  section,  one  bucket  to  every  animal  in 
the  line.  The  strictest  discipline  is  maintained.  There 
should  be  no  commands  except  those  given  by  officers. 

If  watering  from  a  trough,  each  driver  approaches  the 
trough  from  the  left,  making  a  detour  to  approach  the 
trough  perpendicularly,  and  closes  in  to  the  right.  If  dis- 
mounted, he  stands  to  the  left  of  his  horse,  and  pushes 
his  pair  to  the  right.  This  takes  full  advantage  of  the 
facilities  offered.  No  horse  is  permitted  to  leave  the  water- 
ing place,  until  all  horses  there  have  completely  finished 
drinking,  and  then  all  should  leave  at  command.  Horses 
are  gregarious  creatures,  if  one  leaves  the  trough,  all 
others  forget  about  drinking  and  try  to  follow.  After 
each  platoon,  or  section,  has  been  watered,  it  should  be 
formed  in  line  in  rear  of  the  column,  and  when  all  are 
watered  the  battery  should  be  marched  back  to  camp. 

It  is  useless  to  water  in  the  early  morning,  as  the  horses 
seldom  drink  at  that  time.  On  the  other  hand,  these 
early  hours  are  best  for  marching.  It  is  therefore  advis- 
able to, start  at  once,  and  water  wherever  the  facilities  are 
first  found,  preferably  at  the  second  halt. 

Selection  and  Occupation  of  Position 

49.  The  tactical  situation  always  determines  the  em- 
ployment of  the  artillery,  and  the  location  of  the  battery 
positionsr  is  largely  beyond  the  control  of  the  artillery 
10 


146  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

commander.  Nevertheless,  an  artillery  officer  accom- 
panies the  commanding  officer  and  will  be  consulted  as  to 
the  general  locality  in  which  the  artillery  shall  be  placed. 
Subordinate  artillery  commanders  are  charged  with  the 
selection  of  the  immediate  positions  to  be  occupied. 

During  the  present  war  it  has  become  an  axiom  that 
"  a  battery  exposed,  is  a  battery  lost,"  and  concealment 
of  the  artillery  and  its  gun  flashes  are  matters  of  prime 
concern.  Not  only  is  the  battery  concealed  from  the  view 
of  the  enemy  by  natural  features  of  the  terrain,  hills, 
woods,  etc.,  but  the  gims  and  caissons  are  covered  with 
trees  and  brush,  to  disguise  them  from  aeroplane 
observation. 

50.  "  Direct  fire  "  positions,  where  the  battery  is  ex- 
posed, are  only  employed  in  the  following  cases :  in  rear 
guard  actions,  where  the  possible  loss  of  the  battery  is 
compensated  for  by  the  safe  withdrawal  of  the  main  body 
of  the  troops ;  in  advance  guard  actions,  where  the  ele- 
ment of  surprise  gives  a  tactical  advantage ;  in  exceptional 
circumstances  on  the  battlefield,  which  justify  its  exposure 
and  sacrifice,  in  support  of  its  infantry. 

51.  Modern  artillery  combat  generally  requires  "  In- 
direct fire,"  which  affords  concealment  from  observation, 
and  shelter  from  fire.  In  selecting  this  position,  an  ob- 
serving station  for  the  officer  conducting  the  fire  must 
be  located,  which  enables  him  to  see  all  positions  that 
may  be  occupied  by  the  enemy,  and  to  communicate  with 
his  batteries.  The  limbers  must  be  concealed  and  shel- 
tered from  the  enemy's  fire,  yet  near  enough  the  guns  to 
render  possible  the  quick  withdrawal  of  the  battery.  Sim- 
ilarly the  combat  trains  are  protected,  yet  close  enough  for 
the  re-supply  of  ammunition. 

52.  Upon  arriving  at  the  general  location,  selected  by 
the  superior  commander,  the  officer  in  command  of  the 
artillery,  accompanied  by  his  staff  and  artillery  specialists, 
reconnoiters  the  position  and  selects  the  exact  location  for 
the  guns,  the  combat  trains,  and  the  limbers.  He  then 
selects  an  observation  station,  computes  firing  data  for 


OCCUPYING  POSITIONS  147 

his  batteries,  and  prepares  to  establish  communication 
with  them. 

53.  In  the  normal  occupation  of  a  position  by  a  battery, 
the  battery  commander,  as  he  proceeds  to  the  position,  is 
accompanied  by  the  first  sergeant,  an  instrument  sergeant, 
a  telephone  corporal,  two  signallers,  two  scouts,  and  a 
musician  who  acts  as  horse-holder.  Before  leaving  his 
battery,  he  subdivides  it  for  action  into  the  firing  battery, 
consisting  of  four  gun  sections  and  a  caisson  section ;  and 
the  combat  train,  consisting  of  six  caissons,  the  battery 
and  store  wagons,  two  pairs  of  harnessed  spare  horses, 
and  the  reserve'men. 

54.  After  the  battery  commander  has  selected  the  posi- 
tions for  his  guns,  observation  station,  etc.,  he  directs  the 
instrument  sergeant  to  calculate  firing  data,  covering  all 
targets  in  view,  has  the  telephone  corporal  establish  sema- 
phore or  telephone  communication  between  his  observa- 
tion station  and  the  gun  position,  and  his  scouts  observe 
the  positions  of  the  enemy  and  make  the  panoramic  sketch. 
He  then  sends  word  to  the  officer  with  the  firing  battery, 
by  the  first  sergeant,  directing  him  to  bring  up  the  bat- 
tery, and  occupy  the  position  selected ;  also  telling  him 
the  aiming  point,  position  of  the  limbers,  the  route,  and 
gait  to  be  followed.  By  the  time  the  battery  has  arrived 
at  the  position  and  gone  into  action,  all  firing  data  should 
have  been  prepared  and  sent  to  the  guns. 

55.  The  cover,  which  conceals  the  position  of  the  guns, 
should  provide  "  flash  defilade,"  which  means  that  the 
flashes  of  the  guns  are  concealed  from  the  enemy,  and 
requires  that  the  cover  be  at  least  12  feet  higher  than  an 
imaginary  line  joining  the  gun  and  the  enemy.  The  bat- 
tery must  come  into  position  so  carefully  as  to  prevent 
disclosing  its  presence  to  the  enemy. 

56.  Clearing  the  Mask. — In  selecting  the  position  for 
flash  defilade,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  whether  or  not 
the  fire  of  the  guns  will  clear  the  crest  in  front  of  them. 
If  the  guns  are  already  in  position,  set  them  at  the  re- 
quired elevation,  and  a  glance  through  the  open  bores 


148  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

will  determine  whether  or  not  the  projectiles  will  clear 
the  crest.  If  not  in  position,  the  angle  of  departure 
corresponding  to  the  least  range  at  which  it  is  desired  to 
fire  must  be  determined,  and  if  this  is  less  than  the  angle 
measured  from  the  position  of  the  guns  to  the  top  of  the 
crest,  it  will  be  necessary  to  move  back  until  the  angle  of 
departure  is  the  greater,  when  the  elevation  of  the  muzzles 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  projectiles  to  clear. 

57.  Panoramic  Sketch  (see  Fig.  i). — This  is  a  dia- 
gram of  the  terrain  in  which  the  artillery  targets  are  situ- 
ated, or  expected  to  appear.  Properly  constructed  it 
enables  an  artillery  commander  to  train  the  fire  of  his  guns, 
in  a  minimum  time,  upon  a  designated  target,  even  if  he 
does  not  see  it.  It  also  enables  him,  or  an  officer  who 
might  later  relieve  him,  rapidly  to  identify  the  targets  in 
the  sector. 

It  should  contain  all  targets  located  in  the  sector,  and 
designate  the  range  and  deflection  to  each  of  these  targets 
as  accurately  as  possible.  No  attempt  at  artistic  effect  is 
made,  all  available  time  being  used  in  observing  and  locat- 
ing targets. 

A  "  data  line  "  is  drawn  about  one  inch  from  the  top 
of  the  paper,  separating  the  sketch  from  the  data.  Ranges 
are  indicated  above  the  line,  where  "  M  "  stands  for  Ma- 
chine Guns,  "  B  "  for  battery,  "  I  "  for  Infantry,  and 
"  C  "  for  Cavalry,  etc.  The  most  prominent  point  in  the 
landscape  is  marked  as  the  origin,  from  which  deflections 
are  measured  in  mils  to  the  right  and  left,  and  indicated 
just  below  the  data  line. 

58.  Fire  Action. — This  includes  all  measures  neces- 
sary for  calculating  firing  data,  the  fire  for  adjustment, 
and  the  fire  for  eflfect.  For  effective  fire  action  the  bat- 
tery must  have  "  Fire  Discipline,"  the  result  only  of  much 
training  and  practice,  which  insures  an  orderly  and  efficient 
working  of  the  personnel  in  the  delivery  of  fire.  Nor  is 
this  enough ;  the  officers  of  the  battery  must  be  proficient 
in  "  Conduct  of  Fire."  This  means  using  the  proper 
technical  means  to  cause  fire  of  the  desired  nature  to  be 


FIRE  ACTION 


149 


■    CO 


-O 


150  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

brought  to  bear  on  the  target.  Above  all  other  arms,  the 
artillery  must  be  well  officered.  Cavalry  or  infantry  poorly 
led,  or  even  individually  turned  loose  upon  the  enemy, 
may  inflict  some  damage ;  artillery  under  a  poor  leader  is 
utterly  incapable  of  injuring  anything  except  its  friends 

59.  The  Mil. — This  is  the  unit  of  measure  for  all 
angles  in  artillery  practice — the  B.  C.  telescope,  quadrant, 
panoramic  sight,  in  fact  all  arcs  for  measuring  angles  are 
graduated  in  mils.  It  is  the  angle  at  the  centre  of  a  circle, 
subtended  by  1/6400  of  the  circumference.  Its  great  con- 
venience as  a  unit  lies  in  the  two  facts :  First,  that  the 
circumference  of  a  circle  is  approximately  equal  to  6.4 
times  its  radius ;  and  second,  that  in  artillery  practice,  the 
radius  is  always  the  known  number  of  yards,  the  range,  to 
the  object  we  are  interested  in.  So  we  take  for  our  unit, 
the  1000-yard  radius,  with  i  yard  at  the  circumference, 
subtending  i  mil  at  the  centre. 

If,  then,  the  radius  or  range  be  1000  yards,  the  cir- 
cumference is  6400  yards ;  and  each  yard  of  this  circum- 
ference will  subtend  one  of  our  units  of  angfular  measure, 
a  mil,  at  the  centre,  where  angles  are  read.  Remember 
also  that  the  circumference  lies  at  the  target,  or  object  we 
are  considering.  Similarly  for  any  multiple, — if  the 
radius  be  3000  yards,  the  mil  is  subtended  at  the  object  by 
3  yards ;  if  the  range  be  4500  yards,  the  mil  is  equivalent 
to  4^  yards,  to  the  right,  or  left  at  the  object.  Thus  we 
may  read  at  will,  mils  at  the  centre  or  yards  at  the  object, 
I  yard  for  each  1000  yards  of  range. 

Thus:  at  1000  yards,  i  mil  =  i  yard;  3  yards  =3 
inils;  sy2  mils  =  5^  yards.  At  6000  yards  range,  i 
mil  =  6  yards ;  3  mils  =  18  yards  ;  2^  mils  =15  yards ; 
72  yards  ==12  mils.  At  2500  yards  ,  i  mil  =  2^  yards; 
25  yards  =  10  mils  ;  30  mils  =  75  yards.  Take  time  now 
to  solve  enough  of  these  equations  so  your  mind  will  never 
have  to  stop,  to  express  mils  or  yards,  a  function  of  the 
radius.  This  resolves  itself  into  the  simple  rule,  "  the 
angle  in  mils  is  equal  to  the  distance  which  subtends  it  at 
the  target,  divided  by  the  range  in  thousand  yard  units." 


READING  THE  INSTRUMENTS 


151 


Thus'th*  front  of  an  enemy  battery,  60  yards,  at  5500 
yards  range,  is  equivalent  to -f;^  or  11  mils  (fractions  being 
discarded). 

60.  The  Reading  of  the  Instruments. — The  zero  of 
the  panoramic  sight  clamped  to  the  gun,  is  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  bore.  When  the  gun  is  laid  on  the  target,  the 
zero  of  the  sight  is  on  the  target.  The  sight  is  graduated 
clockwise  from  o  to  6400  (see  Fig  2). 


S600 


4800 


1600 


1600 


4000 


3200 


4800 


4000 


3200 


Fig.  3 


The  graduations  on  the  pano- 
ramic sight  are  clockwise 


Fig.  3 


The  graduations  on  the  B.C.  telescope 
are  counter  clockwise 


If  measured  by  the 
panoramic  sight 


T= Target. 

G=Gun. 

P= Aiming  point. 


If  measured  by  the 
B.C.  telescope 


The  zero  of  the  battery  commander's  telescope  is  di- 
rected not  upon  the  target,  but  upon  an  aiming  point,  from 
which  he  measures  the  angles  to  the  targets.  In  order  that 
these  angles  may  be  read  the  same  as  the  corresponding 
ones  measured  by  the  panoramic  sight,  the  telescope  is 
graduated  counter  clockwise,  from  o  to  6400  (see  Fig.  2). 
So,  if  the  angle  T.  G.  P.  (see  Fig.  3)  be  measured  by  both 
instruments,  the  readings  in  each  case  will  be  the  same. 


152  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

6i.  To  Open  Fire. — The  commands  of  the  battery 
commander  would  be:  i.  Battery  Attention.  2.  Aiming 
Point — that  windmill.  3.  Battery  from  right,  or  right 
from  right,  etc.  4.  Deflection  3450.  5.  Open,  or  close, 
by  5.  6.  Site, 305.  7.  Corrector 27.  8.  3500  (Range). 
9.  FIRE. 

62.  Methods  of  Laying,  Direct  and  Indirect. — The 
former  may  be  used  when  the  gunner  can  clearly  see 
through  the  sight  the  part  of  the  target  assigned  to  his 
gun.  In  this  case,  the  target  is  announced  in  the  command 
thus :  Target,  that  blockhouse.  The  gun  is  then  aimed 
directly,  much  as  a  small  arms  rifle  would  be. 

For  Indirect  Laying,  the  aiming  point,  not  the  target,  is 
announced  in  the  command,  thus:  Aiming  point,  that 
white  church  steeple.  It  is  used  whenever  the  gunner 
cannot  clearly  see  through  the  sights  the  part  of  the  target 
he  is  to  hit.  The  angle  of  deflection  P.  G.  T.  (see  Fig.  2) 
is  laid  off  on  the  panoramic  sight,  and  the  gun  traversed 
until  the  line  of  sight  is  brought  upon  the  aiming  point, 
when  the  gun  will  be  properly  directed  upon  the  target. 
In  this  case  the  gunner  lays  for  direction  only,  and  another 
cannoneer  lays  for  range  by  means  of  the  quadrant,  on 
which  the  "  angle  of  site  "  of  the  target  has  been  set  off. 

63.  Methods  of  Fire. — "Battery  from  the  right,  or 
left,"  means  that  the  four  guns  of  the  battery  are  fired  suc- 
cessively, from  one  flank  of  the  battery  to  the  other,  with 
an  interval  of  three  seconds.  This  is  called  a  battery  salvo, 
and  may  be  considered  the  usual  fire  for  adjustment.  When 
the  adjustment  is  by  platoon,  a  platoon  salvo  is  fired,  the 
command  being  right  from  the  right,  or  left  from  the 
right.     These  are  used  to  save  time  and  ammunition. 

If  the  wind  is  blowing  from  right  to  left,  the  salvo  is 
fired  from  the  left  flank,  and  vice  versa.  In  this  way  the 
smoke  of  discharge  from  one  gun  is  not  blown  in  front  of 
the  next  at  the  moment  of  firing,  nor  will  the  bursts  at  the 
target  be  blown  into  each  other  and  obscured,  thus  render- 
ing it  impossible  to  distinguish  where  the  individual  shots 


CALCULATION  OF  DEFLECTION  153 

fell.     If  there  is  no  wind,  it  is  general  practice  to  fire  from 
the  right  flank. 

64.  Aiming  Point. — This  should  be  so  prominent  as 
to  be  easily  recognized  at  the  battery  commander's  position, 
and  at  the  guns. 

It  should  be  high,  at  a  distance  of  2000  yards  or  more, 
and  if  possible,  visible  from  all  guns.  It  should  be  located 
in  rear  of  the  guns.  If  in  front  it  might  be  necessary  to 
lower  the  top  shields  to  aim  at  it,  thus  exposing  the  can- 
noneers ;  also,  errors  in  deflection  are  less  liable  to  cause 
cross-fire. 

It  should  not  be  directly  on  the  flank,  as  the  gun  wheels 
might  interfere  with  the  line  of  sight. 

65.  Calculation  of  the  Deflection. — This  is  necessary 
in  all  cases  of  indirect  fire,  and  consists  in  correcting  the 
angle  P.  B.  T.  (see  Fig.  4),  between  the  aiming  point  and 
the  target,  measured  at  the  battery  commander's  observa- 
tion station,  so  that  it  will  be  equal  to  the  angle  T.  G.  P. 
between  the  target  and  the  aiming  point  measured  at  the 
right  gun. 

This  corrected  angle  is  called  the  "  deflection  of  the 
right  piece,"  and  is  such  that  when  laid  oflf  on  the  pano- 
ramic sight,  and  the  sight  directed  upon  the  aiming  point, 
the  zero  of  the  sight  and  therefore  the  axis  of  the  gun, 
will  be  pointed  at  the  target. 

66.  This  calculation  of  the  deflection  is  the  bugbear  of 
young  artillerists,  made  so  by  the  intricacies  of  antiquated 
methods.  To  dissolve  this  bugbear,  let  us  first  have  a  clear 
mental  picture  of  the  problem.  Look  at  Fig.  No.  4.  The 
battery  commander  is  at  B,  to  the  right  of  his  battery  at 
G,  with  the  aiming  point  to  the  rear  of  the  battery  at  P. 
He  can  see  both  P  and  T,  and  measures  directly  with  his 
telescope  the  angle  P.  B.  T.  But  this  angle  is  not  correct 
for  G.  He  must  correct  it  by  subtracting  the  two  "  offset 
angles,"  P.  B.  P'.  and  T.  B.  T'.,  which  gives  him  the  angle 
P'.  B.  v.,  equal  to  the  desired  angle  P.  G.  T.,  for  the  right 
gun.  And  this  is  the  whole  basis  of  the  famous  "  calcula- 
tion."    These  ofiFset  angles  are  determined  by  measuring 


154 


FIELD  ARTILLERY 


or  estimating  the  perpendicular  distances,  Bx  and  By,  and 
converting  them  into  their  angles  at  P  and  T  respectively. 
To  determine  the  angle  of  deflection  practically,  using 
a  B.  C  telescope,  lay  off  on  the  telescope  the  P  offset, 
direct  the  telescope  upon  P,  clamp  the  lower  limb,  swing 
the  telescope  to  T,  read  the  angle,  and  subtract  mentally 
the  T  offset,  and  you  have  the  desired  angle  P'.  B.  V. 


Pig.  4 


Pig.  s 


67.  In  case  no  telescope  is  available,  the  angle  P.  B.  T. 
may  be  measured  by  the  ruler  instead,  and  the  sum  of  the 
offsets  at  P.  and  T.  subtracted  mentally.  This  gives  the 
same  results. 

In  case  you  have  forgotten  the  rules  given  below,  gov- 
erning the  application  of  these  principles  to  the  different 
situations  resulting  from  changed  relative  positions  of  the 
B.  C.  station,  P,  and  G — it  will  be  helpful  to  establish  in 
the  landscape  real  objects  representing  P'  and  T'.  To  es- 
tablish P'  practically  compute  the  offset  angle  at  P,  and  lay 


THE  DEFLECTION  DIFFERENCE  155 

this  off  on  the  ruler ;  with  the  zero  at  P,  sight  through  the 
point  measuring  the  angle,  and  along  the  extension  of  this 
line  of  sight  select  a  natural  object  in  the  landscape,  which 
will  be  P'.  Similarly  for  T'.  Now  measure  the  angle 
P'.  B.  T'.,  which  will  be  the  desired  angle. 

To  illustrate  by  a  practical  example  (see  Fig.  4)  :  To 
determine  the  offset  at  P — the  distance  By  =120  yards  =: 
40  mils.  The  offset  angle  at  T  is  similarly  found  to  be 
50  mils,  and  their  sum  90  mils,  subtracted  from  the  orig- 
inal  reading  for  P.  B.  T.,  3145,  leaves  the  angle  P'.  B.  T'., 
3055,  the  desired  angle. 

68.  For  the  different  phases  of  this  problem,  presented 
by  changes  in  the  relative  positions  of  the  B.  C.  station  and 
aiming  point,  the  same  principles  apply,  adapted  to  each 
of  the  four  situations,  as  clearly  shown  in  the  four  figures, 
Nos.  4,  5,  6,  and  7,  each  of  which  you  should  now  be  able 
to  solve.  ' 

69.  These  may  be  summed  up  in  these  two  rules : 

I.  Aiming  Point  to  the  REAR: 

B.  C.  station  on  right  flank,  subtract  both  offsets ;  B.  C. 
station  on  left  flank,  add  both  offsets. 

II.  Aiming  Point  TO  THE  Fi?OA^T.- 

B.  C.  station  on  right  flank,  subtract  offset  from  the 
target,  and  add  offset  from  aiming  point ;  B.  C.  station  on 
left  flank,  add  offset  from  target,  and  subtract  offset  from 
aiming  point. 

70.  The  Deflection  Difference  (D.  D.). — In  indirect 
fire,  to  obtain  the  necessary  distribution  of  fire  of  all  the 
guns  collective  distribution  is  used  (see  Fig.  8).  For  par- 
allel fire,  and  for  practical  purposes  this  only  need  be  con- 
sidered, the  difference  in  deflection  (D.  D.)  between  any 
two  consecutive  guns  is  a  constant,  and  is  equal  to  the 
angle  at  the  aiming  point  subtended  by  the  distance  be- 
tween the  guns,  called  the  "  parallax  "  of  the  Aiming 
Point. 


166 


FIELD  ARTILLERY 


THE  DEFLECTION  DIFFERENCE  157 

71.  Parallax  is  defined  in  Drill  Regulations,  as  follows : 
By  the  parallax  of  the  target,  or  aiming  point,  is  to  be 
understood  the  angle  subtended  at  the  point  in  question  by 
the  width  of  a  platoon  front  at  the  battery.  Its  value  in 
mils  is  quickly  calculated  by  dividing  20  (width  of  a 
platoon  front)  by  the  number  of  thousands  of  yards  in 
distance  from  battery  to  point.  Thus  if  the  distance  to 
target  is  2800  yards,  its  parallax  is  7.  Fractions  are  dis- 
regarded in  making  the  calculation,  the  nearest  whole 
number  being  taken. 

If  the  line  from  the  position  of  the  guns  to  the  point 
whose  parallax  is  sought  is  considerably  oblique  to  the 
normal  to  the  battery  front,  then  a  correction  for  obliquity 
is  applied  to  the  parallax. 

72.  Referring  to  Fig.  8,  we  see  that  D',  deflection  of 
second  piece,  equals  D,  deflection  of  right  piece,  plus 
P.  G.  P.;  or  equals  D  plus  P,  parallax  of  the  A.  P.  Thus 
by  adding  P  twice,  and  three  times,  we  get  the  deflection 
of  the  third  and  fourth  pieces,  respectively. 

If  the  A.  P.  were  to  the  rear,  we  would  subtract  suc- 
cessively the  parallax  of  the  A.  P.,  instead  of  adding  it.  So 
in  parallel  fire  we  "  open  "  by  the  parallax  of  the  A.  P.,  if 
the  ^.  P.  is  to  the  front ;  and  we  "  close  "  by  the  parallax, 
if  the  A.  P.  is  to  the  rear. 

73.  If  the  fire  were  converged  upon  a  point  (T),  the 
deflection  of  the  second  gun  G^,  would  be  closed  from  par- 
allel fire  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  angle  T^G^T.,  which  is 
equal  to  G^  T.  G.,  the  parallax  of  the  target  T.  So,  for 
convergent  fire,  the  D.  D.  is  equal  to  P  -T,  P  being  nega- 
tive when  the  A.  P.  is  to  the  rear. 

74.  The  deflection  diflference  for  fire  more  widely  dis- 
tributed than  parallel  fire  is  found  by  "  opening  "  by  an 
amount  equal  to  %  the  front  to  be  covered,  after  converg- 
ing on  the  right  of  the  target.  In  other  words,  by  applying 
the  formula  D.  D.  equals  P -T  plus  x/4,  where  x  is  the 
width  in  mils  of  the  front  to  be  covered. 

75.  The  Corrector. — The  corrector  determines  the 
height  and  burst  of  shrapnel.     Raising  the  corrector  one 


158 


FIELD  ARTILLERY 


mil  oti  the  fuze  setter  scale,  raises  the  height  of  burst  about 
one  mil.  It  really  shortens  the  time  of  burning  for  the 
fuze,  so  that  at  mid-ranges  the  burst  occurs  along  the  line 
of  the  projectile's  flight  about  25  yards  nearer  the  gun, 
and  the  burst  appears,  from  a  position  at  the  battery,  to  be 
about  one  mil  higher  in  the  air.    In  opening  fire,  for  ad- 


FiG.  8 

justment,  it  is  customary  to  use  a  corrector  setting  which 
should  give  a  burst  at  the  height  of  the  target,  called  "  zero 
height,"  which  affords  best  observation.  When  shell  is 
used,  no  corrector  is  employed,  as  only  bursts  on  impact 
will  occur. 

76.  Angle  of  Site. — In  indirect  fire,  when  the  gun  and 


RANGE  159 

target  are  at  different  levels,  it  is  necessary  to  set  the  gun 
at  an  elevation  corresponding  to  the  height  of  the  target. 
The  angular  measurement  of  this  difference,  expressed  in 
mils,  is  the  "  angle  of  site."  Practically  speaking,  the 
"angle  of  site  "  is  such  that  when  set  off  on  the  quadrant, 
the  axis  of  the  bore  will  point  directly  at  the  target.  Hav- 
ing set  off  the  angle  of  site,  the  gun  is  given  the  additional 
elevation  corresponding  to  the  range. 

If  the  target  can  be  seen  at  the  gun,  the  angle  of  site 
may  be  measured  directly.  In  indirect  fire,  it  has  to  be  de- 
termined at  the  B.  C.  station,  which  is  usually  at  a  different 
elevation  from  the  gun  or  the  target,  and  generally  above 
the  gun. 

To  find  the  angle  of  site,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the 
difference  in  level  between  the  gun  and  the  target  in  yards, 
and  to  convert  the  yards  into  mils.  Thus  if  the  target  be 
20  yards  above  the  guns,  at  a  range  of  4000  yards,  the 
angle  of  site  in  mils  will  be  20  -f-  4,  or  5  mils,  above  the 
guns.  For  convenience  the  vertical  scales  of  all  artillery 
instruments  are  graduated  from  o  to  600,  and  the  centre  of 
the  reading,  300,  corresponds  to  horizontal.  So,  in  our 
problem,  the  "  angle  of  site  "  would  be  300  plus  5,  or  305. 

77.  Range. — This  is  determined  either  by  the  range 
finder,  or  by  estimation.  The  word  "  range  "  is  not  an- 
nounced as  part  of  the  firing  command,  the  number  of 
yards  only  is  given,  in  order  to  make  the  command  as 
short  as  possible.  When  commands  are  needlessly  long, 
not  only  is  the  difficulty  of  their  correct  transmission  by 
semaphore  or  telephone  increased,  but  the  speed  of  the 
firing  battery  is  reduced. 

78.  Fire  for  Adjustment. — The  firing  data  having 
been  calculated,  and  the  fire  opened,  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  results,  and  promptly  correct  for  its  adjustment, 
in  order  that  an  effective  fire  may  be  brought  to  bear  on 
the  target  in  the  minimum  time.  This  preliminary  fire  is 
called  Fire  for  Adjustment,  and  consists  in  determining  the 
gun  range,  the  correct  direction  of  the  fire,  and  its  most 
effective  distribution  over  the  front  of  the  target.     When 


160  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

shell  fire  is  employed,  the  height  of  burst  cannot  be  altered, 
but  when  shrapnel  is  used,  the  proper  adjustment  of  the 
height  of  burst  is  also  required. 

79.  Observation,  and  Adjustment  of  Errors  in 
Range. — Goerz  or  Zeiss  self-contained  metre  base  range 
finders  have  been  issued  for  use  at  the  School  of  Fire,  and 
to  battalion  headquarters.  These  instruments  can  be  de- 
pended upon  for  an  accuracy  of  about  ninety  per  cent,  and 
their  use  greatly  simplifies  the  determination  of  the  range. 
However,  these  range  finders  are  both  of  German  make, 
and  their  supply  is  no  longer  available  for  the  U.  S.  Army. 
Range  finding  instruments  manufactured  in  this  country 
have  not  yet  proved  satisfactory.  However,  even  when  a 
range  finder  is  used,  the  accuracy  of  the  instrument  is  not 
taken  for  granted,  and  the  range  is  determined  by  a  system 
of  bracketing  the  target ;  that  is,  by  enclosing  the  target 
between  rounds  fired  at  a  known  diflFerence  of  range,  which 
strike  respectively  short  of,  and  beyond,  the  target. 

If  the  first  round  is  short,  the  range  is  increased ;  if 
over,  it  is  decreased  ;  and  rounds  are  fired  successively  in- 
creased or  decreased  in  range,  as  the  case  may  be,  until  the 
target  is  bracketed.  The  change  in  range  from  round  to 
round  in  this  process  of  finding  the  first  bracket  is  usually 
taken  as  400  yards.  Only  in  cases  in  which  the  range  has 
been  carefully  predetermined,  or  in  which  observation  is 
especially  favorable,  may  a  smaller  change  in  range  be 
safely  employed. 

80.  "Having  bracketed  the  target, the  size  of  the  bracket 
may  be  successively  reduced  by  halving  the  last  bracket 
obtained ;  that  is,  by  firing  at  the  mean  of  the  last  two 
bracketing  ranges.  The  extent  to  which  this  reduction  in 
the  size  of  the  bracket  should  be  carried  is  entirely  depen- 
dent upon  the  nature  of  the  target  and  the  circumstances 
of  the  case. 

If  the  target  is  surely  included  within  the  limits  of  the 
bracket  finally  accepted,  it  may  be  reached  more  or  less 
efl^ectively  by  subsequent  fire.  The  first  consideration,  then, 
is  to  determine  that  fire  at  a  certain  range  is  surely  short 


ERRORS  IN  RANGE  161 

of  the  target,  and  that  fire  at  another  and  greater  range 
is  surely  over  the  target.  A  second  but  very  important 
consideration  is  to  reduce  the  differenec  between  these  two 
bracketing  ranges  as  much  as  possible  ;  that  is,  to  obtain  the 
smallest  bracket  compatible  with  the  circumstances  of  the 
case. 

It  is  rarely  possible  from  a  position  near  the  guns  to 
estimate  with  accuracy  the  amount  of  the  error  in  range. 
Such  estimates  are  usually  too  small,  and  cause  delay 
through  an  effort  to  adjust  the  fire  by  making  timid  and 
insufficient  changes  in  the  range.  Attention  should  rather 
be  concentrated  on  deciding,  from  careful  observation  of 
each  shot,  upon  the  sense  of  a  series  of  shots  fired  from 
the  same  data,  and  on  quickly  enclosing  the  target  with 
fire,  which  is  surely  short,  and  fire  which  is  surely  over. 
By  gradually  narrowing  the  bracket  thus  determined,  an 
effective  adjustment  may  be  secured." 

8i.  "A  burst  in  air  produces  a  ball  of  smoke  which  or- 
dinarily remains  together  for  sometime.  The  bullets  and 
fragments  from  a  burst, in  air  knock  up  a  considerable 
amount  of  dirt  and  dust  if  they  strike  dry  soil ;  on  wet  soil, 
splashes  of  mud  are  knocked  up  by  the  shrapnel  case  and 
large  fragments.  Information  obtained  from  the  observa- 
tion of  the  effect  thus  produced  is  reliable  when  it  is  ob- 
served as  over;  it  is  of  doubtful  value  when  observed  as 
short,  unless  the  burst  is  low. 

If  the  target  is  silhouetted  against  the  smoke  of  the 
burst,  the  latter  may  always  be  considered  as  over,  whether 
the  burst  occurred  in  air  or  on  graze.  If  the  target  is 
obscured  by  the  smoke  on  the  burst,  the  latter  may  be  con- 
sidered as  short;  but,  in  the  case  of  a  burst  in  air,  the 
burst  must  be  low  in  order  to  warrant  this  conclusion." 

82.  Adjustment  of  Direction  and  Distribution. — 
When  direct  laying  is  employed,  such  changes  as  may  be 
necessary  to  bring  the  fire  of  each  gun  to  bear  upon  its 
proportional  part  of  the  target  are  made  at  the  position  of 
the  guns.   In  this  case,  each  gim  is  adjusted  individually. 

When  indirect  laying  is  employed,  the  officer  conduct- 
11 


162  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

ing  the  fire  adjusts  the  Hnes  of  fire  both  for  direction  and 
for  distribution.  Add  to  the  deflection  to  throw  the  projec- 
tile to  the  left ;  subtract  to  throw  the  projectile  to  the  right. 

To  open  the  sheaf,  increase  the  deflection  difference 
algebraically;  to  close  the  sheaf,  decrease  the  deflection 
difference  algebraically. 

To  overcome  observed  errors,  the  error  is  measured  or 
estimated  in  mils,  and  a  corresponding  correction  in  deflec- 
tion is  applied  in  the  appropriate  sense. 

Adjustment  of  Height  of  Burst. — The  desired 
height  of  burst  in  firing  for  adjustment  with  shrapnel  is 
the  height  which  furnishes  the  best  facilities  for  obser- 
vation. The  Drill  Regulations  prescribes  a  i  mil  height 
of  burst  in  adjusting  the  fire,  which  pertains  when  there 
are  three  bursts  in  the  air  and  one  on  graze  or  below  the 
target.  But,  as  it  is  difficult  to  mentally  keep  track  of  this 
proportion  it  is  easier  for  the  beginner  to  adjust  the  burst 
to  the  visible  base  of  the  target.  This  is  called  the  zero 
height  of  burst,  and  obtains  when  half  the  shrapnel  burst 
in  air,  and  half  upon  impact  with  the  ground.  When  the 
shrapnel  are  bursting  too  high,  or  are  bursting  all  on  im- 
pact, bold  changes  in  the  appropriate  sense  are  made  in  the 
corrector  setting,  until  the  zero  height  has  been  bracketed, 
and  finally  determined  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  range. 

Theoretically,  a  three  mil  height  of  burst  should  cause 
greatest  destruction,  and,  therefore,  in  passing  to  "  fire  for 
effect  ''  from  fire  for  adjustment,  the  corrector  setting  is 
raised  by  three  mils.  Artillery  observers  during  the  present 
war  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  three  mils  is  too  great, 
and  a  two  mil  height  of  burst  is  generally  more  effective. 

83.  Fire  for  Effect. — After  the  fire  has  been  adjusted, 
"  fire  for  effect  "  is  opened  for  demolition  or  neutralization 
of  the  enemy.  During  this,  observers  do  not  relax  efforts 
to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  fire  is  most  effective  which 
can  be  brought  upon  the  target,  and  cause  necessary  correc- 
tions toward  that  end  to  be  made  at  the  battery.  It  has  come 
to  be  an  artillery  axiom,  "that  all  fire  is  fire  for  adjustment." 

Usually  the  same  officer  observes  and  conducts  the  fire, 


METHODS  OF  FIRE  FOR  EFFECT  163 

or, from  natural  elevations  which  aflford  a  view  of  the 
sector  against  which  the  fire  is  employed. 

84.  The  Methods  of  Fire  for  Effect  are,  Volley  Fire, 
Continuous  Fire,  and  Fire  at  Will.  "  Volley  Fire  consists 
of  the  rapid  discharge  of  a  certain  indicated  number  of 
rounds  from  all  guns  of  the  battery,  or  other  unit,  each  gun 
fired  without  regard  to  the  others.  It  is  adapted  especially 
to  the  attack  of  personnel.  Its  special  characteristic  is  its 
great  flexibility.  The  number  of  volleys  to  be  fired,, their 
range  difference,  the  number  of  rounds  in  each  volley, 
are  all  in  the  hands  of  the  officer  conducting  the  fire.  By 
suitable  manipulations  of  the  sheaf,  he  may  readily  shift 
the  fire  from  point  to  point  of  the  terrain,  as  necessity 
may  require,  and  by  adapting  the  bursts  of  fire  to  meet  the 
crises  of  action,  he  may  utilize  the  ammunition  to  the  best 
advantage." 

85.  "Continuous  Fire  is  adapted  especially  to  the  demo- 
lition of  material  objects,  and  to  the  attack  of  personnel, 
inactive  and  more  or  less  fixed  in  position,  and  protected 
from  fire.  It  may  be  rapid  or  as  slow  as  desired,  thus  per- 
mitting the  expenditure  of  ammunition  to  be  exactly  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  case.  Exact  adjustment  in 
range  is  sought ;  but  if  the  conditions  of  observation  are 
such  as  to  preclude  this,  the  smallest  possible  bracket  is 
obtained,  and  its  depth  *  searched '  by  successive  changes 
in  the  range." 

86.  "Fire  at  Will  is  employed  solely  for  the  close  defense 
of  the  guns.  Against  a  slowly  moving  enemy,  such  as  in- 
fantry, the  fire  should  be  commenced  when  he  has  arrived 
within  about  350  yards  of  the  gun  ;  against  a  rapidly  mov- 
ing enemy,  such  as  cavalry,  when  he  has  arrived  within 
about  800  yards  ;  the  purpose  in  both  cases  being  to  estab- 
lish surely  a  fire- swept  zone  through  which  the  enemy  must 
pass  in  order  to  reach  the  guns." 

Employment  of  Fire. — "The  power  of  artillery  should 
not  be  frittered  away  in  desultory  bombardments  nor  upon 
unimportant  targets.  Its  employment  is  to  be  adapted  to 
the  phases  of  an  action,  so  that  it  may  exert  the  strongest 


164  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

influence  upon  the  important  objectives  and  at  the  critical 
moments. 

87.  The  opportunities  of  striking  an  enemy  while  he  is 
vulnerable  are  ordinarily  intermittent  and  brief.  They 
occur,  for  example,  when  the  enemy  moves  from  cover  to 
cover,  or  when  he  exposes  himself  in  order  to  contend 
effectively  against  our  own  troops.  Suddenness  of  action 
is  thus  often  a  necessity.  If  the  action  be  also  by  surprise, 
its  effect,  especially  the  moral  effect,  is  increased.  The 
outbursts  of  rapid  fire  called  for,  will  therefore  be  inter- 
mittent, depending  upon  the  nature  and  phase  of  the 
combat. 

88.  A  prolonged  deliberate  fire,  however,  may  be 
requisite  for  destroying  material  objects ;  for  holding  a 
sheltered  enemy  under  subjection,  preventing  his  supply 
and  re-enforcement,  and  precluding  his  effective  interposi- 
tion in  the  engagement;  for  searching  for  an  enemy's 
reserves,  etc. 

89.  Opportunities  for  using  flanking  and  oblique  fire 
must  be  sought. 

90.  These  methods  of  action  are  made  possible  and 
effective  by  timely  reconnaissance,  by  skillful  selection  and 
occupation  of  positions,  by  careful  preparation  for,  and  an 
efficient  conduct  of,  fire,  and  by  thorough  co-operation  be- 
tween the  artillery  and  the  troops  it  is  ordered  to  support." 

91.  "  Economy  of  Ammunition. — It  is  made  the  duty 
of  every  field  artillery  commander  to  exercise  constant  and 
unremitting  care  to  economize  ammunition.  Fire  will  be 
stopped  at  the  instant  the  desired  eflfect  is  produced ; 
methods  of  fire  that  involve  great  expenditure  of  ammuni- 
tion will  not  be  permitted  except  when  vitally  necessary : 
small  and  unimportant  targets  will  not  be  fired  at ;  and  all 
officers,  by  careful  supervision  and  observation,  will  aid 
in  reducing  the  amount  expended  to  the  minimum  neces- 
sary to  produce  the  required  results." 

92.  In  preparing  the  above,  I  have  consulted  the  fol- 
lowing authorities :  The  Tactical  Handling  of  Quick-firing 
Field  Artillery,  Rouquerol ;   Some  Notes  on  Artillery  by 


AUTHORITIES  165 

"  Grenadier  " ;  Notes  and  Lectures  given  by  Capt.  F.  T. 
Austin,  2nd  F.  A. ;  Notes  on  Field  Artillery,  Capt.  O.  L. 
Spaulding,  Jr.,  5th  F.  A. ;  Elements  of  Modern  Field 
Artillery,  U.  S.  Service,  Major  Harry  G.  Bishop,  5th 
F.  A. ;  Field  Service  Regulations,  U.  S.  Army,  1914 ;  Drill 
Regulations  for  Field  Artillery,  U.  S.  Army,  191 1. 

In  giving  these  more  important  principles  of  Field 
Artillery,  very  little  has  been  said  about  that  of  larger  than 
3-inch  calibre,  which  constitutes  the  great  bulk  of  the  field 
artillery  of  the  world.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  what 
has  been  given  may  prove  so  interesting  as  to  result  in 
your  further  consideration  of  American  Field  Artillery, 
the  development  of  which  has  been  so  greatly  handicapped. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

COAST  ARTILLERY 

1.  The  defense  of  a  coast  line  involves  the  use  of  both 
naval  and  land  forces. 

The  Naval  forces  include : 

(a).  The  active  fleet  whose  primary  objective  is  the 
destruction  of  the  enemy's  fleet. 

(b).  Such  vessels  of  the  reserve  fleet  as  may  be  as- 
signed to  the  local  defense  of  a  particular  part  of  the 
coast. 

(c).  The  naval  coast  patrol,  operating  in  connection 
with  shore  signal  stations. 

The  land  forces  include : 

(a).  The  Coast  Artillery  troops,  charged  with  the 
care  and  operation  of  fixed  and  movable  elements  of  the 
seaward  and  landward  defense  of  coast  fortifications,  both 
permanent,  and  those  established  in  emergency. 

(b).  The  Coast  Artillery  supports,  assigned  for  the 
immediate  defense  of  batteries  from  small  raiding  parties. 

(c).  Such  mobile  army  troops  (Infantry,  Cavalry, 
Field  Artillery  and  Engineers)  as  may  be  assigned  to  meet 
and  resist  the  landing  of  an  enemy's  fleet  army,  and  its  ad- 
vance towards  the  fortified  harbor  with  a  view  to  seizing 
the  same  for  a  base. 

2.  The  personnel  of  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  con- 
sists of  a  Chief  of  Coast  Artillery,  on  duty  in  the  War  De- 
partment, who  is  detailed  from  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps 
and,  while  occupying  the  position,  is  a  member  of  the  Gen- 
eral Staff;  of  the  District  Commanders  and  their  office 
assistants,  general  officers  charged  with  the  supervision  of 
the  defense  of  a  considerable  district  containing  a  number 
of  harbors ;  and  of  the  officers  and  men  garrisoning  the 
coast  defenses  of  these  various  harbors. 

3.  The  objects  for  which  coast  fortifications  are  estab- 
lished may  be  classified  as  follows : 

166 


OBJECTS  AND  LIMITATIONS  167 

(a).  For  the  protection  of  important  harbors  and  the 
shipping  lying  therein,  against  capture  by  an  enemy's  fleet, 
thereby  freeing  our  own  fleet  for  offensive  operations. 

(b) .  To  prevent  the  bombardment  of  our  largest  coast 
cities,  or  'the  securing  therefrom  of  a  ransom  on  threat  of 
bombardment. 

(c).  To  afford  safe  refuge  to  our  fleet  when  con- 
fronted by  a  superior  enemy,  and  to  cover  with  heavy  gun 
fire  a  sufficient  water  area  to  the  seaward  of  our  harbors 
to  enable  our  fleet,  when  emerging,  to  take  up  a  favorable 
battle  formation  before  going  under  destructive  fire  of  a 
blockading  fleet. 

(d).  To  protect  the  naval  bases  established  in  distant 
seas  along  the  routes  of  trade,  in  order  that  our  own  fleets 
may  undertake  extended  offensive  operations  without  the 
need  of  a  large  auxiliary  fleet  of  colliers,  repair  ships  and 
hospital  ships. 

4.  The  limitations  of  coast  fortifications  may  be  stated 
in  brief,  as  follows :  The  seacoast  guns  proper  are  in  per- 
manent emplacements  of  concrete,  and  consequently  are 
powerless  to  prevent  the  landing  of  an  enemy's  troops  be- 
yond the  range  of  the  guns  and  mortars.  Unless  an 
enemy's  landing  forces  be  held  beyond  bombarding  range 
of  these  fortifications  by  a  mobile  force  of  sufficient 
strength,  the  coast  fortifications  attacked  from  the  rear 
would  fall,  and  the  enemy's  fleet  be  given  free  entrance  to 
the  harbor.  This  fact,  which  seems  to  minimize  the  value 
of  coast  fortifications  and  indicate  the  term  coast  defenses 
to  be  a  misnomer,  should  be  considered,  however,  in  con- 
nection with  the  relative  ease  of  disembarking  troops  from 
transports.  If  an  enemy's  fleet  can  steam  into  a  harbor 
with  good  docking  facilities,  and  land  its  troops  and  im- 
pedimenta, including  heavy  siege  artillery,  at  excellent  rail- 
road terminals,  the  invasion  of  a  country  becomes  a  simple 
matter.  On  the  contrary,  if  all  strategic  harbors  are  de- 
fended, so  as  to  force  an  enemy  to  land  his  troops  either 
on  an  open  beach  or  at  some  anchorage  of  little  strategic 
value,  our  opportunity  is  greatly  increased  for  assembling 


168  COAST  ARTILLERY 

our  mobile  forces  to  resist  such  landing,  or,  if  unable  to  do 
this,  to  oppose  its  advance  toward  important  centres. 
From  this  it  may  be  seen  that  for  coast  defense  purposes 
there  are  needed  both  efficient  seacoast  fortifications,  and 
an  ample  mobile  force. 

5.  A  coast  defense  command  comprises  all  fortifica- 
tions established  for  the  defense  of  one  harbor,  or  in  cer- 
tain cases,  for  the  defense  of  the  diflferent  entrances  to 
the  same  harbor.  Figs.  9  and  10  are  typical  sketches 
showing  the  characteristic  location  of  coast  fortifications, 
Fig.  9,  for  a  rugged  coast  with  deep  natural  harbors. 
Fig.  10,  for  a  flat  coast  where  the  harbor  consists  of  the 
lower  part  of  a  river. 

There  are  indicated  on  these  plates  the  location  of  bat- 
teries, search-lights,  position  finding  stations,  and  mine 
fields.  There  are  shown  also  in  dotted  outline  the  positions 
an  enemy's  fleet  could  take  up  if  no  fortifications  were 
supplied,  and  the  concentration  of  fire  upon  our  own  fleet 
leaving  the  harbor.  In  solid  lines  the  enemy's  fleet  is 
shown  in  position  beyond  the  range  of  the  seacoast  guns. 
A  comparison  of  the  two  will  indicate  the  importance  of 
the  third  purpose  of  coast  fortifications,  as  given  above  in 
paragraph  3. 

6.  Warships. — In  order  that  the  proper  use  of  sea- 
coast guns  may  be  understood,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some 
knowledge  of  the  construction  of  warships  which  are  the 
targets  of  these  weapons. 

Warships  are  classified,  as  follows :  (a)  dreadnoughts, 
(b)  battlecruisers,  (c)  pre-dreadnought  battleships,  (d) 
armored  cruisers,  (e)  protected  cruisers,  including  scout 
ships,  (f)  destroyers,  (g)  torpedoboats,  (h)  submarines, 
(i)  coast  defense  ships,  such  as  monitors,  and  (j)  auxil- 
iaries, such  as  hospital  ships,  colliers,  supply  ships,  repair 
ships. 

Classes  (a)  to  (e)  inclusive  are  armored  as  is  also 
class  (i)  ;  the  remainder  are  unarmored. 

Classes  (a)  to  (d)  and  class  (i)  carry  heavy  guns 
(from  8  to  15  inches),  in  turrets,  with  armored  ammuni- 


COAST  FORTIFICATIONS 


169 


\ 


% 


Enemy  fleet  beyond  range  of  fotto^  t 


^  Our  f  lecl  formed  irfline  ahead" 


u  nder  cover  of  coosl  foHs. 


V 


^   Smol/ da/fery/or profec/Jng  mJne/ieAi 

I    Jfor/ar  jb<9//ory 

o     rjre  control  s/afion  Qraivte/mdcri 
o!^Searc/t  ligJii  ^  ^  ^ 

\    NJne  /jeTds 

Pig.  Oo 


170 


COAST  ARTILLERY 


Our  fleet  taking  up  bottle  forniotion 
under  cood  suns  -, 

Enemy  fleet  beyond  rangpof  forlC!^^ . 


^   Smd/Zbo/fery/ordefenceofminefiefeb 


*f—  Loi:^e$,un  bQ/fety 


I 


Morfar  ba/fer/ 


o     /7/*e  con/ro/jfbf/on  Ctangefindet^ 
j^  Search  J i^ht 


M/ne/l&Jd3 


Fig.  xo. 


SEAWARD  DEFENSE 


171 


tion  tubes  leading  from  turret  to  magazine.  They  have 
smaller  guns  also  to  repel  torpedoboat  attacks.  The  other 
classes  carry  smaller  guns  only  (6-inch  to  6-pounders) 
protected  by  shields. 

Fig.  1 1  shows  the  typical  armor  distribution  of  a  first 
class  battleship. 

A  protected  cruiser,  the  smallest  armored  vessel,  has 
no  belt  or  side  armor,  nor  turrets,  the  vitals  of  the  ship 
(boilers,  engines  and  magazines)  being  covered  by  the 
protective  deck  only. 


Fig. II 

The  above  typical  classes  of  warsh;ps  are  not  so  dis- 
tinctive as  would  seem  to  be  indicated.  The  different 
classes  blend  into  each  other  so  that  the  dividing  line  is 
at  times  difficult  to  draw.  In  general,  however,  it  may  be 
stated  that  torpedoboats  are  proper  targets  for  only  the 
smaller  rapid-fire  gims  of  the  coast  defense.  The  pro- 
tected cruisers  and  armored  cruisers  are  proper  targets  for 
the  medium  calibre  guns,  and  the  armored  cruisers  and 
all  of  the  more  powerful  vessels  are  proper  targets  for 
the  major  calibre  guns  and  mortars. 

7,  The  elements  of  seaward  defense  may  be  stated  as 
follows : 

(a).  Direct  fire  guns,  which  are  divided  into  (i) 
major  calibre  from  8  to  16  inches,  with  muzzle  velocities 


172  COAST  ARTILLERY 

varying  from  2200  to  2500  foot-seconds  and  finng  pro- 
jectiles weighing  from  300  to  2400  pounds,  to  ranges  from 
10,000  to  24,000  yards ;  the  latest  design  16-inch  gun  will 
have  a  range  of  approximately  35,000  yards;  (2)  inter- 
mediate calibre  guns,  4.7-,  5-,  and  6-inch  calibre,  firing 
projectiles  from  40  to  100  pounds  weight,  and  with  muz- 
zle velocities  from  2600  to  2900  foot-seconds,  with  ranges 
from  8000  to  11,000  yards;  and  (3)  minor  calibre  guns, 
generally  of  3-inch  calibre,  firing  projectiles  of  15  pounds 
weight,  with  muzzle  velocities  approximating  3000  foot- 
seconds. 


Zone  1   Zone  a    Zone  3      Zone  4 
Fig.  12 

The  direct  fire, guns  are  designed  primarily  to  attack 
the  side  armor  of  warships,  and  fire  with  angles  varying 
from  5  degrees  depression  to  30  degrees  elevation.  The 
powder  charge  for  each  calibre  is  fixed  by  the  velocity  to 
be  obtained,  changes  in  range  being  obtained  by  changes 
in  elevations.  Some  of  the  guns  are  mounted  on  disap- 
pearing carriages  with  a  limited  field  of  fire,  others  are 
mounted  on  non-disappearing  carriages  with  all-round 
fire. 

(b).  Mortars.  These  differ  from  direct  fire  guns  in 
that  they  are  designed  to  attack  the  decks  of  warships,  and 
are  fired  in  salvos  of  from  2  to  8  shots.  They  are  high 
angle  fire  weapons,  firing  at  angles  of  elevation  from  45 
degrees  to  70  degrees.     The  projectiles  vary  in  weight 


SEAWARD  DEFENSE  173 

from,  700  to  2400  pounds,  and  the  powder  charges  accord- 
ing to  the  range  desired.  They  are  all-round  fire  guns, 
capable  of  firing  in  any  direction,  and  the  area  on  which 
they  fire  is  divided  into  zones.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  longer  the  range  the  more  effective  is  the  weapon. 
In  the  inner  zones  the  striking  velocity  of  the  projectiles  is 
small,  on  account  of  the  comparatively  small  distance  the 
projectile  falls  after  passing  the  summit  of  the  trajectory. 
For  this  reason  the  heavier  projectiles  are  used  for  the 
inner  zones,  and  the  lighter  projectiles  for  the  outer  zones. 

Fig.  12  shows  a  certain  number  of  these  zones,  ob- 
tained by  varying  the  powder  charges  and  projectiles ; 
also  the  "  overlaps  "  of  these  zones,  by  means  of  which  we 
avoid  as  far  as  possible  having  to  change  powder  charges 
when  a  ship  unexpectedly  passes  from  one  zone  into  an- 
other. 

(c) .  Submarine  Mines.  These  are  buoyant  mine  cases 
loaded  with  high  explosive.  They  are  anchored  with  a 
mooring  rope  so  as  to  maintain  them  at  a  depth  of  from  5 
to  15  feet.  They  are  electrically  controlled  from  shore, 
and  may  be  rendered  harmless  to  friendly  shipping  by 
opening  the  controlling  switches  in  the  mining  casemate. 
They  can  be  fired  singly  when  struck  by  a  hostile  ship,  or 
in  groups,  if  fired  by  the  mine  commander.  In  addition  to 
these  controlled  mines  there  are  "  contact "  mines  which 
may  be  planted,  and  will  explode  when  struck  by  any 
vessel. 

There  are  also  ground  mines  fired  by  contact;  and 
floating  contact  mines,  either  anchored  or  free,  but  the  use 
of  these  is  limited  in  our  service. 

A  mine  field  is  generally  laid  out  so  that  no  vessel  fol- 
lowing a  normal  course  can  enter  a  harbor  without  strik- 
ing at  least  two  mines.  Tortuous  channels  are  left  open 
for  friendly  vessels,  which  are  piloted  through  by  naval 
or  coast  defense  patrol  ships. 

(d).  Submarines.  A  number  of  coast  defense  sub- 
marines have  been  assigned  to  certain  important  harbors. 
The  depth  necessary  for  the  operation  of  these  vessels  f re- 


174  COAST  ARTILLERY 

quently  precludes  their  use  excepting*  in  the  approaches  to 
a  harbor.  Their  function  would  be  to  deter  an  enemy's 
fleet  from  lying  too  close  to  our  shore. 

Their  moral  effect  is  great,  and  it  is  certain  that  neither 
warships  nor  transports  could  anchor  with  safety  within 
the  steaming  radius  of  a  submarine.  They  carry  from  4 
to  8  torpedoes,  which  are  fired  from  specially  prepared 
tubes  in  the  vessel's  bow. 

8.  Auxiliaries. — In  addition  to  the  main  elements 
given  above  there  are  certain  auxiliaries  without  which 
no  coast  fortifications  can  be  efficiently  operated.  They 
are: 

(a).  Position  finding  service.  This  consists  of  the  ob-  ' 
serving  stations,  the  communications,  the  plotting  appara- 
tus by  means  of  which  the  location  of  an  enemy's  vessel 
may  be  accurately  determined,  and  the  fire  of  the  seacoast 
guns  and  mortars  efficiently  directed.  The  first  function 
of  the  position  finding  service  is  to  locate  accurately  an 
enemy's  vessels  at  uniform  intervals  of  time.  This  is 
done  by  three  methods : 

First.  By  a  long  horizontal  base  with  azimuth  reading 
instruments  at  each  end,  azimuths  being  sent  on  the  stroke 
of  a  time  interval  bell  to  a  central  station,  known  as  the 
plotting  room.  Station  arms  on  a  plotting  board  are  set  to 
these  azimuths,  and  their  intersection  marks  the  location 
of  the  target.  A  third  arm  located  at  the  position  of  the 
battery  on  the  plotting  board  gives  the  range  from  the 
target  to  the  battery.  This'is  known  as  the  horizontal  base 
system. 

Second.  The  vertical  base,  by  means  of  which  a  de- 
pression position  finder  on  an  elevated  station  reads  the 
range  and  azimuth  directly,  the  range  being  determined  by 
the  amount  of  depression  given  the  instrument.  With  this 
system  but  one  station  arm  on  the  plotting  board,  and 
the  gun  arm,  are  necessary. 

Third.  The  self-contained  short  base  instrument  with 
prisms  at  its  extremities  one  of  which  reflects  the  image 
in  its  upper  portion  and  the  other  in  its  lower  portion. 


AMMUNITION  175 

By  means  of  a  mechanism  the  prisms  are  turned  so  that 
the  lower  and  upper  images  are  brought  into  coincidence, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  range  drum  exhibits  the  range  to 
the  target. 

(b) .  Searchlights.  These  are  necessary  for  the  proper 
operation  of  the  position  finding  service  at  night,  and  for 
the  pointing  of  direct  fire  guns.  There  are  watchers' 
booths  at  advantageous  points  and  communications  by 
means  of  which  a  target  once  picked  up  by  the  light  may  be 
indicated  to  the  different  batteries  for  opening  fire. 

(c).  Power  Plants.  These  consist  of  steam,  oil,  and 
gasoline  engines,  and  develop  the  power  necessary  for  the 
operation  of  ammunition  hoists,  motors  on  gun  carriages, 
searchlights,  repair  shops,  and  systems  of  communica- 
tions. 

(d) .  Mine  Planters  and  Power  Boats.  These  are  neces- 
essary  for  the  prompt  planting  of  the  mines  at  the  outbreak 
of  war.  In  addition  to  the  government  owned  vessels 
built  especially  for  mine  planting,  each  harbor  has  certain 
tugs,  such  as  light  house  tenders,  selected,  and  equipment 
prepared  for  installation  thereon;  these  are  classed  as 
auxiliary  mine  planters. 

(e).  Ammunition.  This  may  be  fixed,  semi-fixed,  or 
separate.  Fixed  ammunition  is  used  in  minor  calibre  guns  ; 
and  the  projectile,  propelling  charge,  and  primer,  are  as- 
sembled into  one  unit  by  means  of  the  metallic  cartridge 
case.  In  appearance  it  is  the  same  as  a  small  arms  cart- 
ridge. Semi-fixed  ammunition  has  the  projectile  separate, 
but  the  propelling  charge  and  primer  are  assembled  in  a 
metallic  cartridge  case ;  this  is  the  4.7-inch  gun  ammuni- 
tion. In  separate  ammunition,  used  for  5-inch  and  larger 
calibre  guns,  the  projectiles  are  kept  in  shot  rooms;  and 
the  powder  charge,  in  silk  bags,  in  hermetically  sealed 
cans  in  powder  rooms.  The  primer  is  inserted  in  the 
vent  of  the  piece  independently  of  the  other  operations  of 
loading. 

The  projectiles  used  are  cast  iron  shot  or  shell  for 
target  practice  and  for  firing  on  land  areas,  and  forged 


176  COAST  ARTILLERY 

steel  for  use  against  war  vessels.  The  forged  steel  pro- 
jectiles are  divided  into  shot  and  shell ;  the  former  is  a 
misnomer  as  the  shot  is  really  a  shell,  in  that  it  now  con- 
tains a  bursting  charge.  The  only  difference  between  the 
shot  and  shell  is  that  the  latter  has  a  cavity  accommodat- 
ing a  bursting  charge  approximately  three  times  as  large  as 
that  in  the  former.  When  these  projectiles  were  first 
made,  no  explosive  then  known  was  sufficient  in  power 
to  burst  the  shot,  and  the  cavity  was  made  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  a  better  forging.  With  the  inven- 
tion of  Maximite,  and  later  of  Dunnite,  for  bursting 
charges,  it  was  found  that  the  shot  could  be  exploded,  and 
all  armor  piercing  projectiles  are  now  loaded  with  the 
bursting  charge,  and  fuzed. 

The  reason  for  the  two  classes  of  armor  piercing  pro- 
jectiles is  that  only  at  shorter  ranges  can  the  belt  armor 
of  the  heavier  warships  be  pierced.  At  the  longer  ranges 
only  the  lighter  armor  can  be  pierced,  but  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  hits,  combined  with  the  racking  effect  of  the  great 
bursting  charge,  would  serve  to  put  a  warship  out  of 
action.  For  these  longer  ranges,  then,  the  shell  is  used 
with  its  thinner  walls,  greater  explosive  charge,  and  an 
instantaneous  fuse.  At  the  near  ranges,  whc-e  actual  per- 
foration of  the  belt  armor  can  be  obtained,  the  armor 
piercing  shot  is  used,  with  its  heavy  walls  strong  enough 
to  stand  the  shock  of  impact,  and  supplied  with  a  delayed 
action  fuse  which  holds  up  the  explosion  of  the  bursting 
charge  until  the  projectile  has  had  time  to  penetrate  to  the 
vitals  of  the  vessel. 

All  projectiles  at  seacoast  fortifications  are  kept  filled 
with  high  explosive,  the  loading  being  done  by  the  artil- 
lery personnel.  A  certain  number  are  kept  fuzed  and 
ready  for  instant  action  at  all  times.  The  fuzes  for  these 
projectiles  are  so  designed  as  to  require  the  actual  firing 
of  the  piece  to  arm  them.  That  is,  the  fuze  is  safe  in 
storage  and  transportation  and  only  by  the  shock  of  dis- 
charge, or  the  rapid  rotation  of  the  projectile,  can  it  be 
put  in  a  state  to  explode  the  bursting  charge.    The  fuze       i 


FUNCTIONS  OF  OFFICERS  177 

operates  when  the  flight  of  the  projectile  is  suddenly 
checked ;  and,  as  indicated  above,  that  provided  for  the 
shot  is  delayed  in  operation,  while  that  provided  for  the 
shell  is  instantaneous. 

Projectiles  for  mortars  are  known  as  deck  piercing 
projectiles.  They  are  similar  to  the  armor  piercing  shell  in 
that  they  have  thin  walls,  and  a  large  bursting  charge,  but 
are  provided  with  a  delayed  action  fuze,  in  order  that  the 
projectile  may  have  penetrated  the  decks  of  a  warship, 
including  the  protective  deck,  which  covers  the  engine 
rooms  and  magazine,  before  the  fuze  operates  to  explode 
the  bursting  charge. 

All  projectiles  furnished  the  small  calibre  guns,  which 
are  intended  only  for  unarmored  or  lighter  armored  ves- 
sels, have  the  characteristics  of  shell. 

Powder  supplied  the  coast  defenses  of  this  country  is 
smokeless  nitro-cellulose,  in  cylindrical  perforated  grains. 
Weight  of  charge  and  size  of  grains  vary  with  the  calibre 
of  the  piece  in  guns,  and  with  the  zone  in  mortars. 

9.  The  responsibility  for  the  efficient  preparation  and 
operation  of  the  coast  fortifications  is  divided  as  follows : 

The  Chief  of  Coast  Artillery  is  responsible  for  the  final 
decision  as  to  location  of  fortifications,  character  of  arma- 
ment, distribution  of  ammunition  and  personnel,  procure- 
ment of  supplies,  and  methods  of  instruction. 

The  Department  Commander  is,  in  general,  responsible 
for  the  preparation  for  defense  of  all  elements  within  the 
limits  of  his  department. 

The  District  Commander  is  responsible  for  tactical 
training  of  the  coast  artillery  troops  in  all  coast  defenses 
within  the  limits  of  his  district. 

The  Coast  Defense  Commander  is  immediately  re- 
sponsible for  the  defense  of  the  harbor  to  which  he  is  as- 
signed. He  prepares  all  plans  to  resist  attacks  from  the 
sea,  and  from  small  raiding  forces  on  land.  In  addition 
to  his  tactical  duties,  he  is  the  administrative  officer  in  all 
matters  of  supply  and  discipline  within  the  limits  of  his 
coast  defense. 
12 


178  COAST  ARTILLERY 

The  Fort  Commander  is  responsible  for  the  efficient 
training-  of  all  personnel  assigned  to  his  fort,  and  for 
their  immediate  discipline.  In  action,  he  fights  his  com- 
mand, either  in  cooperation  with  other  forts,  under 
direction  of  the  Coast  Defense  Commander,  or  as  a 
separate  unit. 

The  Fire  Commander  is  in  charge  of  two  or  more 
batteries.  He  is  immediately  responsible  for  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  personnel,  and  for  the  condition  and  effi- 
ciency of  the  materiel. 

The  Mine  Commander  has  the  same  responsibility 
with  respect  to  the  mine  system,  and  the  batteries  assigned 
for  their  protection,  as  the  fire  commander  has  for  his 
fire  command. 

The  Battery  Commander  is  responsible  for  the  train- 
ing of  all  personnel  assigned  to  his  battery,  and  for  the 
condition  of  the  materiel.  In  addition  he  is  an  adminis- 
trative officer,  and  charged  with  the  discipline  and  supply 
of  his  company.  He  has  as  his  assistants,  two  officers,  one 
assigned  as  range  officer  who  is  immediately  responsible 
for  the  training  of  the  fire  control  section  of  the  battery ; 
and  another  as  emplacement  officer,  who  is  immediately 
responsible  for  the  training  of  the  gun  crews.  These  offi- 
cers assist  him  also  in  his  administrative  duties.  Each 
gun  and  each  mortar  pit  has  a  gun  commander,  usually 
a  sergeant,  who  is  in  immediate  charge  of  the  emplace- 
ment, and  the  training  of  the  gun  crew.  The  company 
commander  of  a  company  assigned  to  the  service  of 
mines,  is  responsible  for  the  proper  performance  of  such 
duties  as  may  be  assigned  that  company  by  the  mine 
commander.  He  has  also  the  administrative  duties  of  a 
company  commander.  The  commanding  officers  of  mine 
planters  are  generally  lieutenants  of  mine  companies. 

ID.  Enlisted  Specialists. — In  addition  to  the  coast 
artillery  personnel  assigned  to  companies  and  to  the  head- 
quarters staflF,  there  are  the  following  enlisted  specialists, 
who  work  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  artil- 
lery engineer: 


ENLISTED  SPECIALISTS  179 

Master  electricians,  and  the  electrician  sergeants,  in 
charge  of  all  electrical  installation,  including  searchlights, 
telephones,  subterranean  and  under-water  cables. 

The  engineers,  in  charge  of  the  various  power  plants ; 
and  the  firemen,  who  assist  them. 

The  master  gunners,  who  make  surveys,  and  do  the 
draughting  work  for  the  coast  defense  to  which  assigned. 

These  positions  may  be  filled  by  men  of  the  necessary 
technical  training,  and  without  previous  military  experi- 
ence, with, the  following  modifications: 

Master  electricians  and  eleatrical  sergeants.  Any 
civilian  thoroughly  familiar  with  electrical  apparatus  and 
electrical  principles  can  perform  all  the  duties  usually 
assigned  these  specialists,  except  the  preparation  of  War 
Department  records  and  forms,  and  these  any  intelligent 
man  can  readily  learn. 

Engineers.  Any  civilian  thoroughly  familiar  with 
steam,  oil  or  gasolene  engines. 

Firemen.     Any  well  instructed  civilian  fireman. 

Master  Gunner.  The  duties  performed  by  master 
gunners  once  required  a  knowledge  of  the  coast  artillery 
in  all  its  aspects.  However,  a  first-class  draughtsman  and 
surveyor  can  perform  the  work  now  assigned  to  the 
master  gunner. 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  are  the  following  posi- 
tions for  which  intelligent  men  could  be  trained  in  one 
week  or  less :  readers  in  observing  stations ;  ammunition 
detachments  of  gun  or  mortar  batteries,  excepting  the 
chiefs  of  the  various  details,  and  the  men  who  operate 
the  ammunition  hoist ;  members  of  the  gun  detachment 
who  receive  the  ammunnition  on  the  gun  platform  and 
turn  it  over  to  the  truck  detail ;  elevating  details,  with 
the  exception  of  the  range  setter ;  powder  serving  detail. 
All  other  duties  required  of  coast  artillerymen  need  a 
considerable  period  of  training;  and  in  general,  it  must 
be  said  that  the  longer  the  same  men  work  together  the 
more  efficient  will  be  the  results. 


180  COAST  ARTILLERY 

II.  Elements  of  the  Landward  Defense. — The  troops 
for  the  defense  of  seacoast  fortifications  on  the  land  side 
consist  of  the  coast  artillery  supports,  and  of  field  armies 
assigned  for  the  defense  of  a  specified  section  in  the  coast 
lines. 

The  coast  artillery  supports  are  troops  of  the  mobile 
army,  usually  consisting  of  infantry  and  field  artillery, 
assigned  to  the  immediate  defense  of  the  batteries,  and 
encamped  within  the  fortifications.  They  establish  de- 
fensive lines,  consisting  of  intrenchments,  entanglements, 
and  the  preparation  of  advantageous  buildings  for  de- 
fense. Their  duty  is  to  protect  the  batteries  from  capture 
or  damage  by  a  small  raiding  force,  which  might  be  landed 
under  cover  of  darkness  or  fog  within  a  few  hours  march 
of  the  coast  fortifications,  with  view  to  doing  as  much 
damage  as  possible  in  a  few  hours  and  then  retiring.  They 
are  under  the  command  of  the  coast  defense  commander. 
The  coast  artillery  personnel,  when  not  actually  operating 
their  seacoast  guns,  take  part  in  this  landward  defense. 
For  this  purpose  in  part,  they  are  trained  in  the  use  of  field 
artillery  pieces  and  machine  guns,  and  also  to  operate  as 
infantry. 

The  Field  Army. — History  shows  that  an  attack  from 
the  sea  on  a  strongly  fortified  harbor  is  almost  certain  to 
result  in  failure ;  and  that  successful  operations  against 
such  harbors  have  almost  invariably  been  due  to  combined 
land  and  sea  attacks,  the  land  attack  being  the  decisive 
feature.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  without  a  field  army 
to  oppose  the  advance  of  an  enemy  which  might  be  landed 
in  force  beyond  the  range  of  the  seacoast  guns  of  any 
fortified  harbor,  the  fortifications  can  accomplish  nothing 
to  protect  the  harbor  from  ultimate  capture.  Its  sole  bene- 
fit under  these  conditions  would  be  the  delay,  while  the 
enemy  landed  his  troops  and  impedimenta  at  an  unfavor- 
able site. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  oppose  the  enemy  with  a 
mobile  force  equal  or  superior  in  strength.  In  general, 
this  is  accomplished  by  concentrating  at  strategic  points  an 


COAST  DEFENSES  IN  ACTION  181 

army  somewhat  larger  than  would  be  required  to  defend 
any  one  fortified  harbor;  this  force  sending  out  detached 
bodies  to  resist  enemies  at  all  probable  landing  places. 
Should  serious  attempt  to  land  be  made  at  any  point,  the 
detached  force  guarding  that  point  would  be  reinforced 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  Should  the  defenders  be  unable  to 
prevent  the  landing,  and  unable  to  resist  the  advance  of 
the  enemy  towards  his  objective,  there  arises  the  matter 
for  decision  as  to  whether  the  defendinj  force  is  to  resist 
to  extremity,  and  permit  itself  to  be  besieged  in  the  de- 
fenses surrounding  the  harbor,  or  whether  they  are  merely 
to  delay  the  enemy  as  long  as  possible,  and  then  abandon 
the  objective  and  fall  back  to  some  other  position.  The 
value  of  the  objective  to  the  army  and  to  the  enemy,  the 
possibility  of  reinforcements,  and  the  total  strength  of  the 
military  resources  of  the  nation  would  be  the  determining 
factors  in  such  a  case. 

The  Coast  Defenses  in  Action. 

12.  Let  us  imagine  ourselves  in  the  fortifications  of  a 
harbor  in  war  time. 

It  is  night,  and  except  for  a  few  outlying  searchlights, 
it  would  appear  that  all  are  asleep.  The  majority  are ;  but 
in  concealed  watchers'  booths  beyond  the  searchlights,  lie 
men  with  tense  nerves  following  the  beams  of  light  as 
they  sweep  back  and  forth  slowly  searching  every  portion 
of  the  water  area.  The  watchers  are  equipped  with 
powerful  night  glasses ;  telephone  head  sets  are  strapped 
to  their  heads.  Their  reliefs,  wrapped  in  blankets,  sleep 
beside  them. 

At  each  light  are  one  or  more  operators,  also  equipped 
with  head  sets  keeping  them  in  constant  telephone  com- 
munication with  watchers  and  with  fire  commanders.  The 
electric  control  of  the  lights  may  fail.  The  fire  com- 
mander must  then  direct  its  beam  by  word  of  command, 
and  th«  operator  control  its  movements  by  hand. 

In  each  fire  control  station  there  is  one  man  awake  at 


182  COAST  ARTILLERY 

the  range  finder,  keeping  it  in  constant  adjustment  for 
changes  in  tide  and  refraction.  These,  too,  are  follow- 
ing the  movements  of  the  lights  through  their  30-power 
telescopes.  The  remaining  personnel  are  asleep  on  the 
floor. 

In  the  plotting  room  of  each  battery  one  man  is  awake. 
From  time  to  time  data  comes  to  him  from  the  meteoro- 
logical station.  He  keeps  the  range  correction  board  set 
to  give  the  proper  correction  to  be  applied  to  the  true 
range  for  variation  from  the  normal  of  muzzle  velocity, 
density  of  the  air,  strength  of  the  wind  and  tide.  In 
every  power  plant  one  or  more  men  are  caring  for  the 
engines  furnishing  electric  current  for  search  lights,  bat- 
tery lights,  and  gun  carriages. 

A  staff  officer  is  on  the  alert  at  the  coast  defense  com- 
mander's, and  at  each  fort  commander's,  station.  At  the 
first,  the  radio  operator  ceaselessly  adjusts  his  receiver  to 
catch  the  least  indication  from  friendly  patrol  boat,  or 
enemy  fleet. 

"  Number  Two,  search  right ! "  calls  a  watcher, 
"Steady!    Follow." 

"  Dreadnought  in  beam  of  Number  Two !  " 

Within  ten  seconds  of  the  transmission  of  this  mes- 
sage, the  interrupter  in  each  fire  command  station  clatters 
the  alarm  to  each  emplacement  and  station.  ■  The  men 
swarm  from  the  galleries  of  the  batteries,  and  man  the 
pieces. 

As  the  fire  control  sections  take  stations  at  range 
finders,  telephones,  plotting  boards  and  computing  devices 
they  hear  dimly :  "  Battery  Blank,  with  armor  piercing 
shelly  Load ! "  Each  instrument  is  tested  and  range  of- 
ficers report,  "  Range  section  in  order." 

A  minute,  jxDssibly  a  minute  and  a  half,  has  passed. 
Number  Two  light  still  follows  the  target. 

"  Number  Three  in  Action !  "  calls  the  fort  com- 
mander; and  a  dazzling  beam  from  a  heretofore  occulted 
searchlight  cuts  the  darkness. 


I 


COAST  DEFENSES  IN  ACTION  183 

"  Cover  Number  Two ! "  Light  Number  Three 
lowers,  sweeps  sideways,  and  adds  its  beam  to  Number 
Two's. 

"  First  fire  command !  Target  Number  Three,  Com- 
mence Firing ! " 

"Number  Two  Search  right!    Steady!    Follow!" 

Number  Two  light  has  picked  up  the  second  ship  in 
column. 

"  Number  Four  in  action !  Cover  Number  Two ! 
Second  fire  command !  Target  in  Number  Four,  Com- 
mence Firing ! " 

Ship  after  ship  is  picked  up  and  a  light  assigned  it,  the 
fort  commander  exercising  the  greatest  care  that  he  crosses 
no  beams,  for  this  will  blanket  everything  beyond  the 
intersection. 

In  each  fire  command,  the  commander  sends  his  orders 
to  his  batteries.  Observers  at  each  base  end  begin  to  track 
the  target.  At  15-second  intervals,  marked  by  the  stroke 
of  a  bell  in  each  station,  the  azimuth  (angular  direction) 
of  the  target  is  telephoned  to  the  plotting  room.  The 
station  arms  are  set  to  these  azimuths,  their  intersection 
marks  the  position  of  the  target  at  that  instant.  The  plot- 
ter lays  the  gun  arm  (centred  over  the  directing'  point  of 
the  battery)  to  the  intersection.  The  range  to  the  ship 
from  the  guns  is  read.  In  three  observations  (45  seconds) 
her  rate  of  travel  is  ascertained,  and  in  four  observations 
(i  minute)  all  corrections  are  applied.  Thereafter  a  con- 
tinuous stream  of  range  data  goes  to  the  guns,  and  the 
emplacements  quiver  with  the  shock  of  discharge  as  the 
heavy  projectiles  are  hurled  on  their  mission  of  destruc- 
tion. 

But  the  ships  are  not  idle.  Broadsides  flash,  and 
columns  of  flame  arise  around  the  searchlights.  The 
smoke  obscures  the  rear  vessels,  confusing  the  observers 
and  gun  pointers  ashore.  And  the  enemy  is  approaching 
at  the  rate  of  700  yards  per  minute. 

"  Third  fire  command !  Target  in  Number  Three ! 
Commence  firing !  " 


184  COAST  ARTILLERY 

Anticipating  the  necessity,  the  fire  commander  has  been 
having  the  leading  ships  tracked,  and  is  ready.  With  a 
crash  eight  mortars,  fired  by  electricity,  send  their  1070- 
pound  projectiles  up.  Seconds  pass,  for,  they  will  not 
reach  the  summit  of  their  trajectory  for  nearly  half  a 
minute.  The  few  who  are  not  intensely  occupied,  hold 
their  breaths  and  count  their  heart  beats,  oblivious  of  the 
roaring  of  the  great  guns  and  the  detonation  of  shell.  In 
fifty  seconds  there  is  a  blinding  glare,  the  salvo  has  reached 
its  target,  the  leading  ship  breaks  in  two  as  her  magazines 
explode,  and  the  second  ship  turns  barely  in  time  to  avoid 
striking  the  sinking  wreck. 

Number  Two  light  is  shifted  to  the  second  ship.  Num- 
ber Three  to  the  third,  and  so  on. 

In  the  mining  casemate  below  ground,  where  the 
noise  of  battle  is  so  dimmed  as  to  be  almost  inaudible,  a 
sergeant  quietly  closes  switch  after  switch.  Instantly 
every  mine  in  the  group  of  nineteen  controlled  by  each 
switch  is  electrified  and  ready  to  explode  if  struck. 

Close  inshore,  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion  of  the 
main  engagement,  a  flotilla  of  torpedo  boats  dashes  by.  At 
short  range  their  rapid-fire  gims  open  on  the  search  lights. 
One  light  is  struck,  and  then  the  6-inch  and  3-inch  guns 
ashore  awake,  and  as  they  begin  to  find  the  range,  the  de- 
stroyers turn  and  race  outward,  feeding  their  furnaces 
with  an  excess  of  oil,  their  funnels  pouring  out  a  dense 
heavy  smoke  that  soon  covers  the  water  and  makes  further 
firing  useless. 

The  leading  ship  reaches  the  mine  field.  A  mine  tears 
a  gigantic  hole  in  her  port  bow  ;  but  she  forges  ahead,  and 
strikes  the  second  line.  Here  the  wreck  of  her  bow  is 
completed,  and  she  turns,  settling  by  the  head,  and  dashes 
for  shoal  water. 

But  the  way  through  the  mine  field  is  opened.  At  the 
gap  rush  the  balance  of  the  attacking  fleet,  some  listing 
heavily,  others  lacking  funnels  and  military  masts. 

"  Battery  commanders  action ! "  calls  the  fort  com- 
mander.   His  work  is  done.    The  range  is  now  almost 


COAST  DEFENSES  IN  ACTION  185 

point  blank.  Each  battery  commander  now  fights  his 
guns  against  any  ship  he  thinks  best.  Emplacements  are 
swept  by  a  hail  of  small  explosive  shells,  but  the  entire 
armament  of  th.e  defenses  is  concentrated  upon  the  lead- 
ing ships,  at  ranges  where  a  miss  is  almost  an  impossibility. 
On  the  nerve  and  training  of  the  individual  man  the  final 
result  rests ;  for  in  five  minutes  more  the  enemy  will  be 
sunk,  or  the  harbor  captured. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  ENGINEER  CORPS 

1.  The  Engineers  are  auxiliary  troops,  and  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  fighting  forces  of  an  army,  appear  first 
in  the  infantry  division ;  eacli  division  containing  in  its 
composition  one  battalion  of  pioneers,  with  a  senior  en- 
gineer officer  on  the  staff  of  the  division  commander. 

2.  In  the  larger  field,  the  organization  and  control  of 
the  national  resources,  movement  of  troops  and  supplies 
to  meet  the  demands  of  policy  and  strategy,  the  engineer 
finds  himself  playing  a  vital  part  in  war.  For  these  opera- 
tions, adequate  preparation  is  found  in  peace  time,  in  the 
training  and  experience  derived  from  the  various  phases 
of  engineering  as  practiced  in  civil  life.  In  fact,  there  is 
no  peace  time  training  better  suited  to  develop  the  powers 
and  qualifications  essential  to  successful  military  leader- 
ship, than  that  obtained  by  the  young  civil  engineer — 
practical  knowledge  of  camp  sanitation  and  care  of  men 
in  the  field  ;  experience  in  the  control  of  men,  and  uniting 
them  all  in  the  determined  execution  of  his  will ;  and  best 
of  all,  the  development  of  his  own  qualities  of  initiative, 
resourcefulness,  and  unconquerable  perseverance,  in 
meeting  and  overcoming  the  forces  of  nature. 

3.  With  the  fighting  troops,  however,  the  engineer 
must  have  a  specialized  knowledge,  particularly  of  the 
principles  controlling  the  uses  of  artificial  cover  for  our 
men,  of  obstructions  for  the  enemy,  and  of  all  the  details 
of  their  location  and  construction.  These  operations 
are  discussed  in  "  Field  Engineering,"  and,  of  vital  im- 
portance to  the  military  engineer,  will  be  the  sole  subject 
of  this  chapter. 

4.  Under  modem  fire  conditions  it  is  accepted  that 
troops  cannot  long  exist  without  cover,  and  this  means 
that  those  who  may  not  have  natural  cover,  must  "  dig 
in,"  and  make  their  own.    And  where  it  is  intended  to 

186 


TOOLS  FOR  INTRENCHING  187 

maintain  the  position  for  any  length  of  time,  the  construc- 
tion of  this  cover  in  all  its  ramifications,  is  a  matter  of 
considerable  art,  to  be  explained  in  detail. 

5.  Since  digging  in  may  be  vital  for  any  group  of  in- 
dividuals, as  well  as  sometimes  necessary  for  the  whole 
command,  the  proper  equipment  of  fighting  troops,  in- 
fantry, cavalry,  and  field  artillery,  includes  tools  to  make 
this  immediately  possible.  This  means  that  the  infantry- 
man must  carry  his  intrenching  tool  on  his  person  as  part 
of  his  fighting  equipment,  and  that  the  cavalryman  must 
do  the  same  for  dismounted  action  as  infantry.  And, 
as  experience  in  battle  brings  greater  wisdom,  these  men 
grumble  less  and  less  at  the  additional  load.  In  fact,  it 
has  been  reported  that  officers  in  Europe  have  been 
found  discarding  their  swords,  and  gladly  carrying 
shovels  instead. 

6.  In  addition  to  these  tools  on  the  person,  a  supply 
is  carried  in  the  "  combat  wagon  "  accompanying  each 
battalion  and  squadron,  immediately  available  for  dis- 
tribution and  use  when  needed.  And  behind  this,  in  the 
engineer  train  of  each  division,  are  nine  wagons,  one  for 
each  infantry  regiment,  loaded  with  picks  and  shovels, 
to  be  brought  up  and  used  when  conditions  warrant. 
While  these  provisions,  each  for  its  appropriate  phase 
of  action,  do  not  furnish  all  the  tools  that  could  be  used 
to  advantage  in  the  emergency,  they  are  as  numerous 
and  as  efficient  as  is  permitted  by  the  requirement  for  the 
mobility  of  the  troops. 

7.  And  in  the  more  permanent  works,  where  it  is  pos- 
sible to  bring  up  the  engineer  train  wagons,  and  where  but 
two  battalions  of  each  regiment  go  into  the  firing  line 
with  the  third  in  reserve,  it  is  possible  by  proper  distribu- 
tion of  all  available  tools,  to  supply  each  squad  of  eight 
men  in  the  firing  line  with  seven  digging  tools.  Cutting 
tools  are  at  hand,  for  the  use  of  the  troops  assigned  to  the 
work  of  preparing  the  foreground  of  position  occupied. 

8.  It  is  well  to  caution  all  officers  as  to  the  necessity 
for  watching  out  carefully  that  these  tools  are  not  mis- 


188  THE  ENGINEER  CORPS 

placed,  but  each  returned  promptly  and  surely  to  its  ap- 
propriate place.  For  life  itself  may  later  depend  on  hav- 
ing these  tools  at  hand,  properly  disposed,  ready  for 
quick  systematic  distribution,  as  the  conditions  demand. 

9.  We  now  proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  develop- 
ment of  a  defensive  position,  which  the  commander  has 
decided  to  intrench  and  hold.  In  the  earlier  phases  of 
this  development,  the  first  concern  of  the  commander  is 
to  secure  the  key  points  on  the  line  to  be  defended,  the 
possession  of  which  must  be  denied  to  the  enemy.  The 
defensive  line,  therefore,  is  at  first  made  up  of  a  number 
of  defensively  organized  areas,  so  located  with  respect  to 
each  other  as  to  be  able  to  support  each  other  by  covering 
the  intervals  between  with  the  cross  fire  of  small  arms, 
and  which,  taken  all  together,  form  a  line  athwart  the 
probable  line  of  advance  of  the  enemy. 

ID.  These  defensively  organized  areas  are  called  sup- 
porting p)oints.  They  take  the  place  of  the  redoubts  and 
forts  of  former  days,  but  instead  of  being  closed  or  semi- 
inclosed  works,  a  supporting  point  now  consists  of  a 
group  of  fire,  cover,  and  communicating  trenches,  prop- 
erly disposed  on  the  area  to  be  defended  to  permit  of  fire 
to  the  front  and  flanks,  with  the  greatest  possible  degree 
of  concealment  and  cover  for  the  garrison.  The  gar- 
rison of  a  supporting  point  is  preferably  a  tactical  unit, 
generally  a  battalion  in  our  service,  and  the  supporting 
point  is  constructed  ordinarily  by  the  unit  that  is  to  occupy 
it.  By  this  grouping  of  the  trenches  in  our  initial  disposi- 
tions, better  tactical  control  is  secured,  the  several  units 
of  the  garrison  being  under  the  immediate  observation  of 
the  commander,  and  the  amount  of  digging  required  to 
secure  cover,  and  covered  communication,  is  reduced. 

II.  Intervals  between  supporting  points  are  covered 
by  cross  fire  from  flank  trenches.  In  favorable  terrain 
this  interval  may  be  as  great  as  800  or  1000  yards,  at  first. 
Later  developments  may  require  that  supporting  points 
be  connected  by  intermediate  trenches,  and  finally  a 
practically  continuous  line  of  fire  trenches  may  result. 


SUPPORTING  POINTS 


189 


12.  Figure  13  shows  diagrammatically  a  possible  dis- 
tribution of  a  regiment  on  taking  up  a  defensive  position, 
the  regiment  being  part  of  a  larger  command.  Two  bat- 
talion supporting  points  are  organized,  with  one  battalion 
in  reserve,  under  natural  cover.  Each  battalion  on  line 
has  three  companies  in  fire  trenches,  and  one  in  support. 

With  this  arrangement,  a  supporting  point  may  actu- 
ally occupy  from  300  to  500  yards  of  front,  depending  on 
the  disposition  of  the  fire  trenches,  and  the  intervals  be- 
tween supporting  points  may  be  from  500  to  800  yards. 
Thus  the  total  front  covered  by  the  fire  of  a  supporting 
point  may  be  from  800  to  1300  yards.    On  ordinary  terrain 


J»---300  fo  SOOyds.-J'-BOO   to  SOOydsr-J*- -300  +0  BOOydsr 


FF  Co.  fire +renches 

SS  Cover  for  suppor+  Cos. 

C-C  Communica-Ung  trenches 

LL  La+rines 

R  Reserve  Bn. 

GO  Observing  S+a+ion»  . 


Fig.  13 


it  is  considered  safe  to  estimate  Yz  mile  (880  yards)  of 
front  for  each  battalion  supporting  point.  Thus  a  regi- 
ment will  cover  i  mile  of  front,  one  battalion  being  in 
reserve,  a  brigade  will  cover  two  miles  of  front  if  both 
regimental  and  brigade  reserves  are  held  out,  and  a  divi- 
sion, 4  miles  of  front  if  regimental,  brigade  and  division 
reserves  are  provided. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  this  distribution  is  ap- 
propriate to  the  first  phase  of  the  occupation  of  a  de- 
fensive position.  The  fire  that  can  be  developed  from 
such  an  arrangement  of  the  trenches  is  considered  suffi- 
cient to  repulse  an  ordinary  frontal  attack  of  a  force  two 


190 


THE  ENGINEER  CORPS 


or  three  times  as  strong  as  the  defenders.  Field  fortifica- 
tions permit  us  to  hold  a  given  front  with  fewer  men 
than  would  otherwise  be  possible..  Indeed  the  most  skill- 
ful use  of  field  fortifications  is  that  which  allows  a  com- 
mander to  hold  safely  the  maximum  front  with  his  com- 
mand, or  to  hold  a  given  front  with  the  smallest  possible 
number  of  men  intrenched,  thereby  rendering  available 
a  large  general  .reserve  for  offensive  action  elsewhere. 
13.  In  considering  the  details  of  the  organization  of  a 
supporting  point,  we  will  confine  ourselves  essentially  to 
those  works  that  can  be  carried  out  in  the  first  three  or 
four  hours  after  the  decision  to  intrench  has  been  reached. 
The  subsequent  elaborations  of  the  defensive  works  will 
depend  upon  developments  in  the  tactical  situation,  which 


cannot  be  readily  foreseen.  We  will  consider  first  the  fire 
trenches,  then  the  works  immediately  behind  them,  cover 
for  supports,  communicating  trenches,  etc.,  and  then  the 
work  on  the  foreground  in  front  of  the  fire  trenches, 
clearing  obstacles,  etc.,  it  being  understood  that  with 
proper  organization  and  control  work  on  all  of  these 
features  will  go  on  simultaneously. 

14.  The  fire  trenches  are  dug  by  the  companies  that 
are  to  occupy  them,  and  unless  actually  under  fire,  the 
eflFort  will  be  to  secure  a  narrow  trench  that  will  permit 
of  firing  in  the  standing  position.  Figure  14  shows  a 
cross  section  of  the  simplest  form  of  standing  trench,  2 
feet  wide,  3^  feet  deep,  sides  vertical  (which  is  possible 
in  ordinary  soil),  parapet  i  foot  high. 


TRAVERSES 


191 


Some  earth  is  thrown  out  to  the  rear,  forming  a  low 
"  parados  "  to  give  protection  against  the  back  blast  of  high 
explosive  shells.  Later  this  trench  may  'be  widened  and 
deepened,  as' indicated  by  dotted  lines,  to  facilitate  com- 
munication, and  improve  the  cover  afforded — ^but  at  first 
only  the  smaller  trench  can  be  dug. 

15.  In  plan,  a  fire  trench  is  not  straight,  but  conforms 
generally  to  the  contour  of  the  ground.  Also  it  must  be 
"  traversed."  The  traverses  form  a  series  of  jogs  in  the 
trace  of  the  trench,  their  purpose  being  to  intercept  enfi- 
lade fire,  and  localize  the  effect  of  a  shell  or  shrapnel  strik- 


Latrine 


De+ail  of  Traverses 


2' 


Traverse 


Squad    fire    +rench 


I        Traverse        IT; 


TraverA* 


1        TraverA*  1 


Fig. is 


ing  in  the  trench.  Formerly  only  those  trenches  that  were 
likely  to  be  subject  to  an  enfilade  fire  were  traversed,  but 
with  the  increased  effectiveness  of  artillery  fire,  it  has 
been  found  desirable  to  provide  traverses  in  all  fire 
trenches.  Traverses  should  be  spaced  5  to  8  yards  apart, 
and  are  now  preferably  made  6  feet  thick;  and  they 
should  extend  2  feet  in  rear  of  the  back  edge  of  the  fire 
trench.  Figure  15  gives  an  idea  of  the  plan  of  a  narrow 
standing  traversed  trench,  for  a  company  of  16  squads. 
If  two  feet  of  parapet  length  are  allowed  for  each  rifle, 
and  the  traverses  are  6  feet  thick,  this  trench  will  be 
about  115  yards  in  length. 


192  THE  ENGINEER  CORPS 

Riflemen  cannot  fire  readily  if  spaced  less  than  two 
feet  per  rifle.  Three  or  four  feet  would  be  preferable, 
but  this  would  increase  the  amount  of  digging  required 
to  get  cover  for  all,  so  but  two  feet  per  man  are  pro- 
vided at  first.  Later,  when  additional  fire  trenches  have 
been  provided,  4  men  may  be  assigned  to  the  16  foot 
section  of  fire  trench  between  traverses. 

16.  Considering  the  subject  of  the  location  of  fire 
trenches,  the  best  site  for  a  trench  is  one  from  whicli  the 
best  fire  effect  can  be  obtained  in  combination  with  com- 
plete concealment  of  the  trench,  and  of  the  movements 
of  the  supports  and  reserves  in  rear.  Such  positions  are 
rarely  found  and,  as  a  rule,  a  compromise  must  be  ac- 
cepted— ^bearing  in  mind  always  that  a  good  field  of 

A  Mili+ary  Cres+ 

B  Foot  of  fore  slope 

C  Cornpromise 

O  Reverse  slope 


Fig.  16 

fire  up  to  about  400  yards  is  of  primary  importance. 
The  most  extensive  field  of  fire  is  to  be  had,  as  a  rule, 
from  the  military  crest  (see  Figure  16),  but  this  location 
will  give  a  plunging  fire  at  mid  and  long  ranges,  and 
concealment  is  difiicult.  Placing  fire  trenches  at  the  foot 
of  the  fore  slope,  effective  grazing  fire  and  good  conceal- 
ment may  often  be  secured,  but  communication  is  difficult. 
An  intermediate  compromise  position  is  often  preferable. 
The  desirability  of  including  within  our  own  lines 
high  ground  from  which  our  artillery  fire  can  be  ob- 
served and  controlled,  leads  generally  to  a  location  of 
the  fire  trenches  on  the  fore  slope.  In  the  later  stages  of 
the  development  of  an  intrenched  position,  when  the 
enemy  has  had  time  to  bring  up  all  of  his  artillery,  and 
when  we  have  had  time  to  construot  effective  obstacles, 
concealment  from  observation  by  the  enemy  becomes  a 
controlling  factor  in  the  location  of  fire  Frenches,  more 


ADDITIONAL  WORKS 


193 


important  than  our  own  iield  of  fire.  This  may  lead  to 
the  location  of  fire  trenches  on  the  reverse  slope,  with  a 
field  of  fire  of  but  50  to  100  yards.  In  this  case  a  good  ob- 
stacle is  imperative.  In  the  earlier  phase  of  the  opera- 
tion which  we  have  been  discussing,  the  fore  slope  loca- 
tion is  considered  preferable. 

All  trenches  should  be  made  as  inconspicuous  as  pos- 
sible, the  effort  being  to  change  the  natural  appearance 
of  the  ground  as  little  as  possible.  This  is  difficult  in 
hasty  work,  particularly  as  observation  from  the  ground 
and  the  air  must  be  guarded  against. 

17.  In  rear  of  the  fire  trenches  early  consideration 
must  be  given  to  the  following  works:    Cover  for  sup- 


Fig. 17 

ports,  observing  station  for  battalion  commander,  com- 
municating trenches,  latrines,  and  water  supply.  Cover 
for  dressing  stations  and  kitchens  may  receive  considera- 
tion later.  Supports  will  ordinarily  provide  cover  for 
themselves  while  the  fire  trenches  are  being  dug,  prefer- 
ably within  50  or  75  yards  of  the  fire  trenches,  natural 
cover  being  taken  advantage  of  if  available.  They  may 
be  located  so  as  to  permit  of  their  firing,  in  which  case 
they  would  dig  a  fire  trench.  If  no  natural  cover  exists, 
work  will  be  commenced  on  a  cover  trench  similar  in 
cross  section  to  the  fire  trench.  This  may  be  improved 
later  to  provide  cover  sitting  (Fig.  17).  By  giving  cover 
trenches  a  wavy  trace,  necessity  for  traverses  is  obviated. 
An  observing  station  for  the  battalion  commander 
13 


194  THE  ENGINEER  CORPS 

should  be  built  simultaneously  with  the  fire  and  cover 
trenches  by  a  detail  from  the  support  company. 

The  fire  and  cover  trenches  being  completed,  each  com- 
pany will  provide  itself  with  a  latrine,  offset  from  its 
trench.  This  is  about  all  that  can  be  done  in  the  first  two 
or  three  hours  of  work.  Communicating  trenches  between 
support  and  fire  trenches  must  next  receive  consideration, 
both  support  and  fire  line  companies  being  employed  in  the 
construction.  Fig.  i8  shows  cross  section  of  a  communicat- 
ing trench.  It  may  not  be  practicable  to  secure  full  depth 
at  first.  In  trace,  communication  trenches  are  either  zig- 
zag with  straight  lengths  of  not  over  15  yards,  or  wavy. 

The  drainage  of  all  trenches  is  important  and  must 
always  be  considered  in  laying  out  fire,  cover,  and  com- 
municating trenches. 

18.  The  reserve  will  ordinarily  be  located  behind 
natural  cover,  so  that  it  may  be  used  to  assist  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  supporting  points,  ordinarily  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  foreground,  to  improve  the  field  of  fire. 

This  work  will  consist  of  cutting  down  trees  and  brush 
in  front  of  the  fire  trenches  for  a  distance  of  several  hun- 
dred yards,  and  in  the  construction  of  obstacles. 

All  the  cutting  tools  from  the  regimental  wagon  of  the 
engineer  train  will  be  turned  over  to  the  working  parties 
from  the  reserve  for  this  work  and  the  brush  and  trees  cut 
should  be  formed  into  an  obstacle.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  clearing  work  takes  a  good  deal  of  time,  particu- 
larly if  trees  are  large.  If  time  is  short,  fire  trenches 
should  not,  therefore,  be  given  a  location  which  requires  a 
large  amount  of  clearing  to  give  an  effective  field  of  fire. 

The  best  obstacle  is  made  of  barbed  wire,  and  re- 
quires some  time  for  its  construction.  Existing  barbed 
wire  fences  may  be  improved  as  obstacles,  if  extra  wire  is 
available.  Obstacles  are  particularly  necessary  where  the 
field  of  fire  is  short.  In  fact,  a  field  of  fire  is  to  be 
regarded  not  as  a  distance  but  as  a  time  interval. 

19.  In  the  deliberate  occupation  of  a  defensive  posi- 
tion, the  ground  can  be  carefully  studied  by  the  com- 


LOCATING  THE  TRENCHES 


195 


mander  and  his  staff  officers,  particularly  engineers,  and 
all  of  the  details  of  the  defensive  works  can  be  carefully 
planned  and  their  execution  supervised.  Complete  recon- 
naissance of  the  position  to  be  occupied  is  desirable.  In 
the  usual  course  of  field  operations,  however,  only  a  few 
hours  may  be  available  for  strengthening  a  position,  and 
it  is  important  that  the  men  be  put  to  work  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. Commanders  of  the  larger  units  should  precede 
their  commands  to  the  position  and  make  a  hasty  recon- 
naissance of  the  ground  while  the  troops  are  coming  up, 
the  effort  being  to  permit  the  several  units  to  move  without 
check  or  delay  to  their  positions  on  the  defensive  line. 


tmyn 


.-■18-  4r  c.'R' 

FiG.  i8 

To  accomplish  this,  commanders  must  delegate  many  de- 
tails to  their  subordinates,  each  commander  confining  his 
reconnaissance  and  instructions  to  the  essential  points 
necessary  to  move  the  several  units  of  his  command  to 
their  respective  places  on  the  defensive  line,  where  they 
may  be  put  to  work  promptly.  Thus  each  commander, 
from  the  division  to  the  company  commander,  has  his  part 
to  play  in  the  occupation  and  organization  of  a  defensive 
position,  and  it  is  evident  that  best  results  can  only  be  se- 
cured when  the  officers  of  all  arms  and  grades  are  familiar 
with  the  principles  and  practice  of  field  fortification. 

20.  Let  us  consider  briefly  the  functions  and  duties  of 
the  several  commanders  in  a  brigade  ordered  to  take  up  a 
defensive  position,  the  brigade  being  part  of  a  larger  com- 
mand.    The  brigade  commander  may  expect  to  receive 


196  THE  ENGINEER  CORPS 

from  the  division  commander  instructions  or  orders  cover- 
ing essentially  the  following  points  :  a.  The  general  line  to 
be  occupied,  b.  The  extent  of  front  to  be  covered  by  his 
brigade,  c.  Whether  or  not  a  brigade  reserve  is  to  be  held 
out.  With  this  information,  and  from  such  inspection  of 
the  ground  as  he  can  make  without  delaying  the  game,  the 
brigade  commander  issues  his  instructions  to  his  regi- 
mental commanders.  If  the  latter  have  been  able  by  this 
time  to  join  the  brigade  commander  on  the  position,  much 
time  will  be  saved.  The  brigade  commander's  instructions 
cover  essentially  the  following  points : 

a.  Assignment  of  regiments  to  their  respective  sectors 
of  line,  and  to  brigade  reserve  if  one  is  to  be  provided. 

b.  He  may,  if  he  see  fit,  indicate  the  general  location 
of  the  line  of  fire  trenches,  as  at  the  foot  of  the  slope,  the 
military  crest,  or  some  intermediate  position.  If  his  in- 
formation is  not  sufficient  to  decide  this  matter,  it  may 
be  left  to  the  regimental  or  battalion  commanders. 

c.  Brigade  commanders  and,  indeed,  all  commanders 
will  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  the  position  taken  up  by 
their  commands  must  hook  up  properly  with  the  units  on 
their  right  and  left. 

Regimental  commanders,  continuing  the  reconnais- 
sance in  more  detail,  will  assign  their  battalions  to  posi- 
tions on  the  line  and  in  reserve,  indicating  the  number 
and  general  location  of  the  supporting  points  to  be  pre- 
pared. They  will  also  indicate  the  desired  distribution  of 
tools  from  regimental  wagon  of  engineer  train,  and  the 
particular  work  to  be  done  by  the  regimental  reserve. 

The  details  of  the  organization  of  the  supporting  points 
are  left  to  the  battalion  commanders,  who  assign  their 
companies  to  fire  trenches  and  supports,  and  supervise  the 
adjustment  of  the  whole  defensive  group  to  the  ground, 
so  as  to  develop  a  strong  frontal  fire  and  to  cover  the 
intervals  between  adjacent  supporting  points. 

Company  commanders  make  the  final  precise  location 
of  fire  trenches,  and  deploy  their  companies  for  digging. 

Thus,  if  each  commander  exercises  his  proper  func- 


DIGGING  COMPANY  TRJENCH  197 

tions  in  succession,  the  ultimate  result  becomes  a  composite 
work  to  which  each  has  contributed  his  part,  and  if  the 
commanders  are  alert  and  know  their  business,  there  need 
be  no  loss  of  time  in  getting  the  men  to  work. 

21.  Let  us  now  consider  the  time  required  to  secure  a 
fire  trench  of  the  kind  above  described,  and  how  best  to 
deploy  a  company  to  dig  it.  Our  minimum  requirement  is 
a  narrow  trench,  say  2  feet  wide  and  3}^  feet  deep,  with 
straight  sides,  if  the  earth  will  stand,  the  excavated  earth 
being  thrown  out  front  and  rear  to  form  a  parapet  one  foot 
high  and  at  least  3^  feet  thick  and  a  light  parados  about 
I  foot  high.  We  need  traverses  6  feet  thick,  at  intervals 
of  5  or  6  yards.  We  should  like  to  have  3  or  4  running 
feet  of  parapet  for  each  rifleman,  but  this  would  entail  too 
much  digging  at  first,  so  we  must  be  content  with  2  feet  per 
man.  Each  squad  therefore  will  take  a  16  foot  length  of 
fire  trench — and  we  may  as  well  provide  for  a  traverse 
between  each  squad  section  of  the  trench. 

The  company  being  brought  to  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  work,  packs  and  rifles  will  be  laid  on  the  ground 
near  at  hand,  and  four  men  of  each  squad,  each  with  a 
portable  digging  tool  in  hand,  will  be  deployed  at  4  foot 
intervals  on  the  line  to  be  intrenched,  an  interval  of  2  yards 
being  left  between  squad  lengths  of  trench  to  provide  for 
the  traverses.  The  final  location  of  the  trench  is  now 
made  by  shifting  this  line  backward  and  forward.  The 
4  foot  interval  between  diggers  can  be  secured  by  having 
each  of  the  four  men  with  tools  extend  the  right  arm  to 
touch  the  shoulder  of  the  man  on  his  right ;  the  6  foot 
interval  for  the  traverses  being  covered  by  a  fifth  man 
with  both  arms  extended. 

The  line  being  adjusted,  if  each  digger  will  now  drive 
his  tool  in  the  ground  between  his  feet,  the  front  cutting 
line  of  the  trench  will  be  established,  and  the  task  of  each 
digger  will  be  indicated,  lying  between  his  own  tool  and 
that  of  his  neighbor  on  the  right.  Work  will  be  immedi- 
ately commenced  upon  the  16  foot  sections  of  squad 
trenches,  leaving  the  connections  around  the  traverses  to 


198  THE  ENGINEER  CORPS 

be  developed  later.  The  four  diggers  may  be  relieved  at 
intervals  by  the  other  four  men  of  the  squad.  As  soon  as 
the  park  tools  from  the  regimental  wagon  of  the  engineer 
train  are  distributed,  work  on  the  connections  around  the 
traverses  will  be  undertaken.  Ordinarily  two  park 
shovels  and  one  pick  mattock  will  be  available  for  each 
squad,  so  that  when  the  park  tools  come  up  seven  men  of 
each  squad  may  be  kept  at  work  digging. 

The  time  required  for  the  construction  of  a  company 
fire  trench  of  the  kind  indicated  is  subject  of  course  to 
wide  variations,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the 
skill  and  spirit  of  the  diggers,  and  the  state  of  the  weather. 
With  average  skill  and  in  medium  soil,  using  the  tools  as 
above,  it  should  be  a  matter  of  from  2  to  2^  hours  of 
actual  digging.  During  this  time  work  on  the  foreground, 
and  the  rear  ground,  has  been  going  on.  It  is  safe  to  say 
therefore  that  in  three  hours  a  well  trained  command 
should  be  able  to  intrench  itself  in  a  manner  to  repel  ordi- 
nary open  attack  of  a  force  two  or  three  times  its  strength. 

22.  The  need  for  hasty  works  under  present  day  condi- 
tions is  so  frequent  and  so  extensive,  that  their  construc- 
tion cannot  be  delegated,  as  was  formerly  the  case,  to  the 
engineers,  whose  numbers  would  be  quite  inadequate, 
but  must  be  performed  by  the  troops  who  are  to  defend 
them.  There  are,  however,  many  classes  of  works  re- 
quired in  the  organization  of  a  position,  which  demand 
operations  for  which  the  other  troops  are  neither  trained 
nor  equipped,  and  which  can  be  best  carried  out  by  the 
technical  troops.     Of  this  character  are  the  following: 

a.  Demolitions,  calling  for  the  use  of  high  explosives 
in  clearing  the  foreground,  and  obstructing  the  enemy's 
communications. 

b.  Cutting  down  heavy  timber,  for  which  the  infantry 
tools  are  not  adapted. 

c.  Assisting  in 'the  organization  of  specially  important 
supporting  points,  involving  the  employment  of  artificial 
obstacles  and  substantial  covers. 

d.  Providing  communications,  especially  bridges,  in 
rear  of  and  along  the  position. 


TECHNICAL  WORK  199 

e.  Executing  special  constructions  such  as  observation 
stations,  and  shelters  for  the  wounded. 

f .  Constructing  works  on  the  second  line  of  defense,  if 
such  should  be  contemplated. 

In  general,  engineers  will  be  employed  on  works  of  gen- 
eral interest  not  definitely  assignable  to  other  combat  units, 
and  on  work  requiring  special  technical  skill  and  tools. 

23.  Since  the  proportion  of  engineers  is  small,  any 
attempt  to  apportion  them  uniformly  over  an  extended 
front  must  lead  to  such  a  scattering  of  personnel  and 
materiel  as  to  preclude  any  practical  results.  Undue 
subdivisions  will  render  supervision  by  engineer  officers 
impossible,  and  will  complicate  the  subsistence  and  ad- 
ministration of  the  engineer  units.  All  considerations, 
therefore,  point  to  the  employment  of  the  engineers  in 
tactical  units,  viz.,  companies. 

When  a  reconnaissance  precedes  the  actual  organiza- 
tion of  a  position,  the  senior  engineer  officer  will  be  able 
to  furnish  advice  as  to  the  best  employment  of  the  en- 
gineer troops  to  carry  out  the  intentions  of  the  commander, 
and  this  would  naturally  be  followed  in  assigning  the 
engineer  troops.  Where  no  such  reconnaissance  can  be 
made,  assignment  of  engineers  will  have  to  be  made  more 
or  less  arbitrarily,  and  their  employment  decided  by  the 
commander  of  units  to  which  they  may  be  attached.  There 
being  three  pioneer  companies  to  each  individual  battalion, 
one  company  may  be  assigned  to  each  brigade  for  execution 
of  work  deemed  necessary  by  the  brigade  commanders. 

24,  The  engineer  troops  can  render  valuable  services 
also  on  the  offensive.  In  this  case  they  accompany  the 
leading  troops  of  the  attack,  equipped  with  demolition  and 
pioneer  tools,  and  high  explosives,  prepared  to  overcome 
or  remove  any  obstacles  interfering  with  the  advance  of 
the  infantry,  and  to  assist  in  the  organization  of  captured 
points.  To  secure  the  best  results  from  the  employment 
of  engineer  troops  on  the  battlefield,  it  is  incumbent  that 
all  combat  officers  should  understand  their  functions, 
capacity  for  executing  work ;   and  also  their  limitations! 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

This  Corps  is  of  the  Staff — and  is  as  essential  to  the 
conduct  of  a  modern  army  as  the  telephone  service  to  the 
conduct  of  an  extensive  business  in  a  great  city.  Its  func- 
tion is  to  supply  the  "  nerve  channels  "  that  allow  com- 
munication between  the  controlling  mind  and  all  the 
ramifications  of  the  intricate  machine  represented  by 
modem  armies  in  the  theatre  of  war. 

It  has  always  been  true  that  timely  information  of  the 
forces  and  intentions  of  the  enemy  is  absolutely  essential  to 
a  commander's  successful  employment  of  strategy  and 
tactics.  Our  air  craft  have  made  so  sure  the  getting  of 
this  information  in  the  larger  forces,  and  our  use  of  elec- 
tricity has  made  its  delivery  at  headquarters,  and  the  dis- 
semination of  resultant  orders,  so  quick  and  sure,  that  it 
is  true  to-day,  as  never  before,  that  this  phase  of  military 
endeavor  has  attained  a  prominence  which  justifies  the 
statement  that  it  has  become  a  major  factor  in  the  conduct 
of  war. 

The  rapid  advances  of  science  since  the  Civil  War, 
which  ushered  into  military  use,  railroads,  telegraph,  bal- 
loons, and  the  breech  loading  rifle,  have  been  so  great  as  to 
require  the  services  of  many  trained  specialists  in  the  scien- 
tific departments  of  the  staff. 

The  science  of  war  to-day  comprises  the  use  of  chem- 
ical, mechanical,  electrical,  and  physical  devices,  of  great 
variety.  These  things  are  standardized,  but  only  within 
certain  limits,  as  eflficiency,  so  necessary  to  defeat  the 
enemy,  is  ever  keeping  pace  with  progress,  and  progress  is 
ever  extracting  from  the  limitless  fields  of  ingenuity  and 
invention  new  things  which  are  offered  for  trial  and  test. 

Organization. — With  the  fighting  forces,  the  signal 
troops  first  appear  attached  to  the  infantry  division,  and 
there  consist  of  a  field  battalion  and  an  aero  squadron. 
200 


ORGANIZATION  201 

Attached  to  the  commanding  general's  staff,  is  a  senior 
signal  officer,  through  whom  the  wishes  of  the  general,  and 
the  work  of  the  signal  troops,  are  harmonized.  He  also 
acts  as  censor  at  headquarters,  is  in  charge  of  the  code  and 
cipher,  and,  when  the  military  are  in  charge  of  commercial 
telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  as  will  almost  always  be  the 
case  when  an  army  is  operating  in  foreign  territory,  he  ar- 
ranges for  the  transmission  of  commercial  messages  over 
any  of  the  lines.  These  duties  make  him  one  of  the  impor- 
tant levers  through  which  the  general  works. 

A  field  battalion  consists  of  three  companies  com- 
manded by  a  major,  each  company  having  its  own  special 
work.  One  is  a  wire  company,  another  an  outpost  com- 
pany, and  the  third  a  radio  company. 

The  wire  company  is  equipped  with  some  twenty  miles 
of  insulated  wire  wound  on  reel  carts,  which  makes  it 
possible  to  lay  lines  as  quickly  as  the  fastest  troops  can 
move.  The  specific  work  of  this  organization  is  to  provide 
telegraphic  or  telephonic  lines  of  communication  from  the 
Division  Commander's  headquarters,  wherever  he  may  be 
to  the  three  brigade  commanders,  often  many  miles  in 
front,  thus  keeping  them  in  touch  with  their  chief. 

From  each  brigade  commander  forward  to  the  colonels 
of  the  regiments,  this  work  is  taken  up  by  the  outpost  com- 
pany. We  are  now  well  within  the  range  of  flying  bullets, 
and  the  equipment  of  the  wire  companies  gives  way  to 
much  lighter  material  to  permit  the  signal  men  to  carry  it 
on  their  persons,  as  they  creep  over  the  ground,  or  hurry 
along  through  the  saps  and  trenches,  unwinding  a  very 
thin  wire  from  a  breast  reel  as  they  go.  Their  instrument 
of  communication  is  the  service  buzzer,  a  portable  tele- 
graph and  telephone  instrument  combined  in  one.  This 
instrument  was  designed  in  our  signal  corps,  and  through 
many  improvements,  has  been  developed  to  a  very  satisfac- 
tory state.  It  is  bound  in  leather,  and  not  much  bigger 
than  a  cigar  box.  This  compact  form  makes  it  very  easy 
for  the  signal  corps  operator  to  keep  his  instrument  at- 
tached to  his  person,  as  the  exigencies  of  battle  move  him 


202  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

from  place  to  place.  The  telegraph  cannot  be  drowned  out 
by  the  roar  of  battle,  and  affords  means  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  messages  and  orders  with  unfailing  accuracy, 
which  the  telephone  cannot  equal.  The  telephone,  on  the 
other  hand,  permits  the  introduction  of  the  personal  equa- 
tion, and  is  particularly  valuable  for  persons  of  high  rank 
who  wish  to  transmit  views  and  exchange  ideas.  The  per- 
sonnel of  the  wire  and  outpost  companies  must  therefore 
be  trained  telephone  as  well  as  telegraph  operators. 

The  radio  company  supplements  the  wire  companies, 
accompanies  any  units  that  may  be  detached  from  the 
division,  such  as  the  cavalry,  engaged  in  extended  opera- 
tions. It  renders  a  general  variety  of  service  in  all  cases 
where  the  distances  are  too  great  for  the  wire  units  to 
cover,  or  where  physical  considerations,  such  as  inter- 
vening bodies  of  water,  make  the  use  of  wire  inexpedient. 
The  radio  equipment  consists  of  four  pack  sections,  and 
two  wheel  radio  sets.  These  latter  have  a  larger  com- 
municating radius  than  the  pack  sets,  and  are  used  for 
communicating  with  other  divisions,  the  headquarters  of 
superior  commanders,  and  bases  in  the  rear. 

Telegraph  Battalions. — Behind  the  divisions  are  tele- 
graph battalions,  composed  of  telegraph  companies.  These 
work  from  the  army  bases  up  to  where  the  field  battalions 
begin,  and  install  a  semi-permanent  equipment.  We  now 
see  the  lines  erected  on  light  lance  poles,  and  provisions 
made  for  a  larger  volume  of  business.  As  we  go  on  back 
to  the  base,  we  come  in  contact  with  the  signal  service  at 
large,  where  work  of  any  magnitude  may  be  in  operation, 
depending  upon  the  character  of  the  war.  In  the  present 
war  in  Europe  one  sees  not  only  provinces  and  sections, 
but  entire  kingdoms,  occupied  by  conquering  armies.  Such 
pictures  should  be  sufficient  to  show  the  magnitude  of  the 
work  falling  to  the  signal  service.  The  purely  commercial 
cable  system  to  Alaska  was  not  only  designed  and  con- 
structed by  the  signal  corps,  but  has  been  operated  by  it  for 
the  past  dozen  years,  and  will  undoubtedly  continue  to  be 
for   a  considerable   time,   until   Alaska  becomes   more 


AIR  CRAFT  203 

populated,  sines  the  system  is  not  sufficiently  remunerative 
to  attract  commercial  enterprise. 

As  war  is  but  national  policy  carried  on  by  other  than 
normal  means,  it  follows  that  the  duties  of  the  military  as 
an  arm  of  the  government  are  but  to  function  when  other 
means  fail.  It  retires  when  the  normal  branches  of  the 
government  again  become  capable  of  carrying  out  their 
duties.  And  so,  in  the  Philippines,  many  thousands  of 
land  and  cable  lines  erected  by  the  Signal  Corps  of  the 
Army,  and  charged  to  military  appropriations,  were  turned 
over  to  the  established  Philippine  government,  and  the  cost 
merely  charged  off. 

Air  Craft. — The  aero  squadron  attached  to  a  division 
consists  of  three  companies.  We  have  at  present  a  total 
of  12  machines.  Eight  are  of  the  reconnaissance  type,  and 
two  of  the  pursuit  and  combat  type.  This  service  is  very 
new,  and  we  are  modelling  very  much  along  the  lines 
brought  out  by  the  war  developments  in  Europe. 

Air  craft  are  now  employed  for  strategical  and  tactical 
reconnaissance,  and  the  prevention  of  reconnaissance  by 
the  enemy's  air  craft ;  for  the  direction  and  control  of  fire 
of  the  artillery;  for  the  destruction  of  the  enemy's  per- 
sonnel and  materiel  by  explosive  and  incendiary  missiles 
and  other  means;  and  for  the  rapid  transportation  of 
superior  commanding  officers. 

The  value  of  air  craft,  and  especially  of  the  aeroplane, 
in  the  field  of  reconnaissance,  has  been  proved  beyond 
question.  Whatever  may  be  the  opinions  of  military  men 
as  regards  the  offensive  importance  of  air  craft,  and  the 
present  standing  of  the  dirigible,  there  is  no  longer  a  ques- 
tion as  to  the  value  of  the  aeroplane  in  rapid  and  long- 
range  reconnaissance  work,  and  of  its  power  to  secure 
and  to  transmit  by  radio,  visual  signal,  or  direct-flight,  in- 
formation  of  the  utmost  importance  to  armies  in  the  field. 
So  true  is  this  that  it  seems  probable  the  aeroplane  and, 
to  some  smaller  degree,  all  aircraft,  have  altered  not  the 
principles  of  strategy,  which  are  immutable,  but  the  theory 
and  application  of  grand  tactics.     It  now  appears  that  the 


204  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

actual  game  of  war  is  played  openly  with  cards  laid  on  the 
table,  and  opportunity  no  longer  exists  for  inference  as  to 
concealed  movements,  perhaps  not  even  for  the  exercise 
of  the  high  military  quality  of  anticipation  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  adversary;  while  the  possibility  of  brilliant 
and  unexpected  blows  by  enterprising  commanders  has 
been  largely  eliminated.  The  air  craft  sees  and  indicates 
the  larger  operations  of  war,  and  points  out  to  the  slowly 
moving  men  on  the  ground  not  only  the  object  to  be  at- 
tacked or  defended,  but  to  reconnaissance  troops,  espe- 
cially the  cavalry,  the  objective  to  be  sought,  the  localities 
to  be  searched,  and  the  character  of  information  to  be 
obtained. 

Thus  the  air  craft  facilitates  the  work  of  obtaining 
detailed  information,  which  can  be  acquired  only  by  close 
observation,  by  contact,  and  by  development  of  the  enemy's 
forces  and  positions,  which  remains  the  sole  duty  of  the 
troops  on  the  ground.  Not  only  this,  but  it  has  especial 
value  to  a  commander  in  finding  his  own  troops,  in  keeping 
him  informed  when  movements  are  taking  place,  and  of  the 
positions  of  his  flanks  and  centre,  his  outposts,  his  cavalry, 
his  artillery,  of  the  positions  attained  by  any  detached  body 
— in  short,  of  keeping  him  constantly  in  touch  with  the 
locations  and  movements  of  all  the  units  of  his  command 
under  the  changing  conditions  of  battle. 

It  may  then  be  said  that  air  craft  have  extended  the 
usefulness  and  power  of  all  arms  of  the  service,  the  infan- 
try, the  signal  corps,  and,  more  especially,  the  cavalry.  For 
if  the  special  field  of  reconnaissance  be  indicated,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  cavalry  or  infantry  can  more  quickly  and 
accurately  obtain  the  desired  information  regarding  any 
particular  point,  than  if  obliged  unseeingly  to  search  the 
whole  field  of  operations.  A  reconnaissance  by  troops 
may  now  move  less  in  the  dark,  know  better  what  to  look 
for  and  search  in  detail,  and  lose  less  time  and  effort  in 
accomplishing  the  object  sought.  No  move  of  concentra- 
tion from  flank  or  centre,  no  development  of  a  wing,  nor 
reinforcement  of  a  weak  position,  should  remain  unknown 


AIR  CRAFT  205 

to  the  adversary  who  possesses  a  thoroughly  efficient  flying 
corps. 

In  addition  to  the  influence  exerted  by  air  craft  on 
grand  operations,  events  now  appear  to  show  that  their 
value  in  more  detailed  operations  is  great,  and  may  in- 
crease in  the  future  to  enormous  proportions.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  artillery  practice  afloat  and  ashore.  It 
may  almost  be  said  that  guns  are  fought  by  means  of  the 
eyes  of  the  aviator.  Instead  of  the  old-fashioned  system  of 
range  finding  by  trial  fire,  or  by  observation  from  the 
battery  or  elevations  near  by,  the  exact  range  may  often  be 
found  with  the  help  of  aeroplanes,  which  signal  positions, 
and  the  location  of  bursts.  Artillery  fire  direction  has 
thus  been  enormously  increased  in  accuracy,  especially 
when  the  bursts  cannot  be  seen  from  below.  Infantry  fire 
also  has  been  largely  improved  in  efficiency  by  the  same 
means. 

The  aeroplane  has  further  undoubted  use  in  finding 
concealed  positions,  in  locating  hidden  howitzers  or  mor- 
tars, and  in  pursuit  and  rear-guard  actions.  It  will  be  use- 
ful in  locating  ships  at  sea,  or  at  anchor  within  defenses ; 
especially  in  the  detection  of  submarines  and  submarine 
mines,  and  certainly  in  the  enormously  increased  efficiency 
given  to  seacoast  gun  fire ;  also  to  the  coast  defense,  the 
coast  guard,  and  many  other  elements  of  observation. 

But  the  useful,  proven,  and  most  important  work  of  air 
craft  is  reconnaissance,  and  the  collection  and  transmission 
of  information  in  the  theatre  of  military  operations.  For 
this  reason  aviation  must  be  reckoned  as  a  vastly  important 
branch  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army. 

The  use  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  defense  against  aeroplane 
attack,  and  for  the  rapid  transportation  of  commanding 
officers  or  important  personages  is,  of  course,  obvious. 
Although  still  in  its  infancy,  the  air  service  has  made 
definite  strides  in  the  present  war,  and  with  the  perfection 
or  improvement  of  each  technical  detail,  it  attains  a  posi- 
tion of  greater  importance.  Neither  electricity,  nor  steam, 
went  forward  at  so  rapid  a  rate.     The  future  still  hides. 


206  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

but  undoubtedly  holds,  a  very  great  development  for  this 
infant  auxiliary. 

Training. — The  care  of  horses  and  wheeled  vehicles, 
knowledge  of  the  gas  engine  and  electricity  are  the  funda- 
mentals for  the  training  of  signal  troops.  With  all  this, 
each  man  must  be  a  soldier,  for,  after  all,  he  is  but  a  cog  in 
the  huge  military  machine,  and  this  training  is  necessary  in 
order  that  he  may  play  his  part  smoothly.  Without  mili- 
tary training  to  accompany  his  technical  knowledge,  he  is 
as  a  stranger  entering  *the  inner  circles  of  a  family.  It 
should  therefore  be  evident  to  all  those  in  training  camps, 
who  may  wish  to  prepare  for  service  in  an  auxiliary  arm 
or  staff  corps,  that  no  time  is  lost  in  getting  a  soldier's 
training  first. 

Should  this  country  be  involved  in  war  of  any  magni- 
tude, there  would  be  needed  no  less  than  a  thousand  signal 
officers,  who  must  come  from  civil  pursuits.  Electrical 
engineers,  telegraph,  telephone,  cable,  and  radio  engineers, 
and  allied  professions  such  as  the  signal  service  of  rail- 
roads, and  many  others,  should  furnish  most  excellent 
material  for  officers.  In  the  aviation  units  many  experts 
would  be  required  besides  the  aviators  to  keep  up  the 
service  of  maintenance. 

The  enlisted  personnel  is  made  up  of  privates  in  two 
grades,  of  corporals,  sergeants,  ist  class  sergeants,  and 
master  signal  electricians.  The  private  is  the  very  be- 
ginner, and  if  he  possesses  knowledge  or  aptitude  and 
willingness,  is  quickly  advanced  to  the  grade  of  first  class 
private.  In  this  grade,  and  that  of  corporal,  are  the 
majority  of  telegraphers.  Above  this  grade,  technical 
knowledge,  and  ability  to  handle  men  and  sections  of  work, 
are  necessary.  In  peace  times  the  last  two  grades  are 
reached  only  after  examination  tests  in  electricity,  and 
allied  subjects,  including  the  use,  repair,  and  construction 
of  the  many  articles  of  signal  corps  equipment.  In  other 
words,  practical  electricians  in  the  signal  corps,  who  apply 
themselves  to  learn  the  work  of  the  corps,  find  themselves 
advancing  toward  the  top.     As  every  organization  is  self- 


WORK  OF  THE  CORPS  207 

sustaining,  cooks,  mechanics,  blacksmiths,  clerks,  saddlers, 
teamsters,  and  others  make  up  a  very  necessary  part  of  the 
personnel.  These  proportions  assembled  together  make  a 
company,  over  which  a  captain  presides,  assisted  by  lieu- 
tenants. This  unit  or  family  is  now  ready  to  go  forth  and 
through  its  captain  becomes  responsible  for  the  results 
that  superiors  expect. 

The  Work  of  the  Corps. — It  is  impracticable  even  to 
begin  to  describe  this  in  detail.  The  best  idea  may  be 
given  by  pictures  of  actual  accomplishment. 

First,  an  extract  from  the  report  of  General  Greely, 
the  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army,  on  recent  American 
campaigns :  "  Their  practical  operation  is  the  story  of 
the  field  duties  of  the  American  Signal  Corps,  in  Cuba, 
China,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines.  Its  work  in  '98 
placed  the  White  House  within  five  minutes  of  the  coast  of 
Cuba.  It  first  located  Cervera's  fleet,  and  first  announced 
its  destruction.  At  Santiago  it  stretched  telephone  wires 
along  Shafter's  front  from  San  Juan  Hill  to  Aguadores. 
In  Porto  Rico  it  opened  up  cables ;  and  with  the  telephones 
and  sounders  of  its  electric  lines  keeping  pace  with  ever)' 
division,  was  in  the  forefront  under  fire.  In  China  it  fol- 
lowed Chaffee's  columns,  and,  entering  Peking  on  the  heels 
of  his  victorious  troops,  alone  kept  the  world  in  touch  with 
the  imperial  city  for  a  week.  It  repaired  Dewey's  cable  at 
Cavite,  and  directed  the  fire  of  the  Monadnock  at  La 
Loma.  In  the  Philippines  its  10,000  miles  of  constructed 
and  maintained  telegraph  lines  and  cables  connected  all 
tactical  points  throughout  the  Archipelago,  whether  in  the 
field  or  camp,  under  fire  or  in  quiet  intervals ;  not  only  did 
its  campaign  work  shorten  the  insurrection,  but  also  its 
existence  later  rendered  possible  great  reduction  of  forces 
without  endangering  peace,  more  than  once  saving  a 
garrison." 

Also  this  picture  of  present  operations  in  Europe, 
showing  how  a  cable  detachment  maintains  communication 
with  a  division  which  has  been  ordered  to  move  to  some 
other  position :     "  The  cable  detachment  moves  off  at  a 


208  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

trot,  across  country,  along  roads,  through  villages,  and  past 
columns  of  troops,  the  white  and  blue  badge  of  the  signal 
service  clears  the  way.  Behind  the  wagon,  from  which 
unreels  the  cable,  rides  a  horseman,  who  with  the  aid  of 
a  hooked  staff,  deftly  lays  the  cable  in  the  ditches  and 
hedges  out  of  danger  from  heavy  transport  and  the  feet 
of  trampling  infantry.  Other  horsemen  are  in  the  rear 
tying  back  and  making  the  line  safe.  On  the  box  of  the 
wagon  sits  a  telegraphist,  who  is  constantly  in  touch  with 
headquarters  as  the  cable  runs  swiftly  out.  An  orderly 
dashes  up  with  an  important  message ;  the  wagon  is 
stopped,  the  message  dispatched,  and  on  they  go  again." 

And  again  at  a  German  headquarters  mess  where,  in  re- 
ply to  a  question  as  to  existing  conditions  on  the  firing  line, 
some  40  forty  miles  away,  the  general  commanding  took  up 
a  telephone  receiver,  called  one  station,  and  there  were  dis- 
tinctly heard  the  boom,  boom  of  the  artillery  and  the  rat-a- 
tat  of  infantry  fire;  connecting  with  a  second  station 
farther  along  the  lines  of  the  western  front,  merely  the  in- 
fantry was  heard  ;  and  still  farther  along  the  trenches,  was 
silence.  A  complete  and  instantaneous  report  on  fighting 
conditions  as  they  existed. 

Advantages  of  Peace  Training. — To  dispel  the  wide- 
spread conceptions  of  undesirable  conditions  in  Army 
Service,  and  to  show  the  advantages  that  really  exist  in  the 
American  service,  the  following  is  given  :  "  The  technical 
education  of  the  signalman  is  very  carefully  considered. 
Schools  of  instructions  are  maintained  at  Fort  Wood, 
New  York  harbor,  and  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans.,  where 
courses  are  given  in  telegraphy,  including  radio,  military 
signalling,  electricity,  photography,  line  construction  ;  gen- 
eral instructions  concernin^^  the  care  and  handling  of  gov- 
ernment property  and  rendering  the  necessary  reports,  and 
handling  moneys  received  at  military  telegraph  offices,  as 
well  as  practical  military  instruction  covering  the  duties 
of  a  soldier ;  while  the  aviation  school  at  San  Diego,  Cal., 
and  the  aviation  centre  at  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  furnish  in- 
struction regarding  the  repair,  maintenance,  and  flying,  of 


PEACE  TRAINING  209 

aeroplanes.  In  addition  to  the  schools  named,  each  field 
and  telegraph  company  has  its  school,  in  charge  of  capable 
officers,  where  classes  are  conducted  for  instruction  in  the 
duties  performed  by  the  signal  corps.  Separate  labora- 
tories are  maintained  in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  at  the 
United  States  bureau  of  standards  in  the  same  city.  De- 
tachments of  the  signal  corps  on  duty  at  these  stations  are 
engaged  in  experimental  work  of  a  most  interesting  char- 
acter. Associated  with  electrical  and  radio  engineers  of 
a  high  degree  of  training  and  ability,  members  of  these 
detachments  are  furnished  opportunities,  in  both  theory 
and  practice,  to  perfect  themselves  in  technical  and  intri- 
cate branches  of  electrical  engineering. 

"  Excellent  opportunities  are  offered  for  making  use 
of  any  special  aptitude,  as  that  of  a  blacksmith,  carpenter, 
engineer,  machinist,  plumber,  cable  splicer,  and  many  sim- 
ilar occupations,  and  men  possessing  a  limited  knowledge 
of  any  of  these  occupations  on  entering  the  corps  have  in 
many  cases  been  able  to  gain  valuable  experience  and  prac- 
tice, thus  not  only  often  leading  to  rapid  promotion  and 
agreeable  service  while  members  of  the  corps,  but  equip- 
ping them  with  a  calling  wherewith  to  earn  a  livelihood 
in  civil  life  after  their  terms  of  enlistment  have  been 
completed. 

''  Among  subjects  taught  by  the  signal  corps,  special 
mention  is  made  of  modern  aeronautics  and  radio  teleg- 
raphy. The  development  of  aeronautics  in  the  army,  with 
which  the  signal  corps  is  charged,  offers  a  field  that  is  new 
and  full  of  promise.  Modem  aeronautics,  likewise  elec- 
trical power  in  the  army,  depend  primarily  on  the  gasoline 
engine — the  machine  that  has  been  the  magic  force  in 
modem  progress — which  in  itself  can  be  made  the  subject 
of  a  liberal  education.  The  rapid  rise  of  radio  telegraphy 
and  its  general  application  have  been  phenomenal.  The 
signal  corps  has  applied  this  means  of  communication 
wherever  its  use  is  possible,  and  has  developed  and  built 
high-power  stations  in  Alaska,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
in  the  United  States ;  has  devised  and  constructed  portable 
14 


210  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

tractors  of  the  automobile  type  for  use  at  division,  corps, 
and  army  headquarters,  as  well  as  skid  and  pack  sets  for 
use  with  small  commands  and  under  varying  conditions. 
Radio  operators  are  required  for  the  operation  of  these 
stations,  as  well  as  expert  gasoline-engine  men  for  the 
high-power  stations,  and  chauflfeurs  with  the  tractors.  The 
signal  corps  has  also  installed  radio  stations  on  all  army 
transports  and  supplies  the  operators  needed  at  these 
stations, 

"  The  course  at  the  schools  at  Forts  Wood  and 
Leavenworth  usually  covers  a  period  of  about  six  months, 
at  the  end  of  which  the  men  have  ordinarily  obtained  the 
necessary  foundation  in  theory  and  practice  to  enable  them 
to  be  assigned  to  practical  work,  such  as  maintaining  tele- 
phone systems  at  military  posts;  operators  at  telegraph 
offices  and  radio  and  cable  stations ;  linemen ;  gasoline  en- 
gineers, and  photographers  at  detached  stations  or  with 
field  and  telegraph  companies.  The  men  upon  completing 
the  course  of  instruction  at  the  aviation  school  at  San 
Diego  are  usually  assigned  to  duty  with  aero  squadrons  at 
aviation  centres.  The  exceptional  feature  about  an  educa- 
tion obtained  in  the  signal  corps  is  that  it  not  only  furnishes 
the  necessary  theoretical  knowledge,  but  also  supplies  the 
practical  experience  without  which  theory  is  to  a  great 
extent  worthless. 

"  And  to  show  that  while  gaining  this  valuable  experi- 
ence, the  government  generously  rewards  the  enlisted  man, 
his  rate  of  pay  per  month  is  given,  and  this  is  in  addition 
to  all  expenses. 

"  The  pay  of  enlisted  men  serving  in  Alaska,  China, 
and  the  Philippine  Islands  is  increased  20  per  cent.,  and  a 
further  increase  of  35  cents  per  day  is  allowed  enlisted 
men  employed  in  Alaska  on  the  Alaska  cable  and  telegraph 
system.  All  enlisted  men,  in  addition  to  their  regular  pay, 
receive  rations,  quarters,  clothing,  fuel,  bedding,  medicine, 
and  medical  attendance  when  required. 

"  It  must  therefore  be  evident  that  service  with  the 
signal  corps  of  the  army  not  only  offers  an  excellent  career 


PEACE  TRAINING 


211 


for  young,  energetic,  and  ambitious  men,  and  affords  train- 
ing in  the  development  of  self-control  and  regularity  of 
habits,  as  well  as  improvement  in  physical  vigor,  but  ex- 
tends excellent  opportunities  for  advancement  in  many 
lines  of  mechanical  endeavor,  including  some  of  the  most 
useful  and  unlimited  occupations  falling  to  the  lot  of  man, 

Signal  Corps  Pat  Table 


Master  signal  elec- 
trician   

First-cass  sergeant 

Sergeant 

Corporal 

Cook 

First-class  private 
Private 


?75.oo 
4500 
36.00 
24.00 
30.00 
18.00 
15.00 


$79-oo 
49.00 
40.00 
27.00 

3300 
21.00 
18.00 


If  reenlisted  within  three  months. 


$83.00 
5300 
44.00 
30.00 
36.00 
24.00 
21.00 


^87.00 
57.00 
48.00 
3300 
39.00 
27.00 
22.00 


^91.00 
61.00 
52.00 
36.00 
42.00 
30.00 
23.00 


$95.00 
65.00 
56.00 
39.00 
45.00 
33 -oo 
24.00 


•o-s 


■d  a 


C  3  O 

M    S 

M 


>99.oo 
69.00 
60.00 
42.00 
48.00 
36.00 
25.00 


thus  preparing  them  to  enter  successfully,  upon  terminat- 
ing their  army  service,  lucrative  employment  in  civil  life." 
The  above  quotations  are  from  "  Circular  No.  8,  of 
1915,  Office  of  the  Chief*  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army," 
Washington,  D.  C,  to  whom  the  reader,  if  his  interest  has 
happily  been  aroused,  may  apply  for  a  copy  of  this  tre- 
mendously interesting  and  instructive  pamphlet,  which  has 
been  in  reality  the  basis  of  most  of  the  above  discussion. 


CHAPTER  XI 

TACTICAL  RULES 

There  are  a  few  principles  for  handling  men  and  situ- 
ations in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  so  fundamental  and 
yet  simple,  that  I  have  thought  they  could  be  grouped  here 
together,  and  so  thoroughly  learned  that  they  might  be- 
come to  the  military  man  what  the  multiplication  table  is 
to  the  mathematician.  They  may  strike  you  as  almost  too 
simple  to  bother  with ;  yet  we  have  seen  one  or  another 
violated  again  and  again  at  maneuvers,  while  our  history 
teems  with  instances  where  officers  have  met  disaster 
through  non-observance  of  sonje  one  of  these  simple  rules. 

On  the  march,  distances  in  column  must  be  kept  closed 
up,  to  make  quick,  sure  deployment  possible,  without  long 
running  up  from  the  rear. 

Covering  detachments  must  always  protect  the  main 
body  from  surprise  attack.  On  the  march  and  in  camp, 
this  is  generally  regarded.  But  at  temporary  halts,  it  is 
too  often  forgotten,  and  invites  disaster. 

Going  into  a  fire  fight,  the  men  must  not  be  winded,  nor 
unduly  excited,  by  being  rushed  pell  mell  into  action. 

Deploying  from  column  for  action,  leading  elements 
must  hold  back  until  all  rear  elements  are  properly  on  the 
line,  as  they  would  do  at  drill. 

Never  deploy,  until  by  reconnaissance  you  are  sure  of 
the  proper  direction,  and  that  you  are  as  far  advanced  as 
practicable. 

Deploy  only  the  strength  necessary  for  the  immediate 
purpose.  Always  keep  a  reserve  in  hand,  and  use  it  only 
when  the  opportunity  demands. 

If  suddenly  confronted  with  an  occasion  for  action, 
adopt  a  simple,  definite  plan ;  and  then  carry  that  plan  out 
firmly. 

Having  undertaken  any  one  engagement,  concentrate 
all  your  resources  on  bringing  it  promptly  to  a  successful 
212 


TACTICAL  RULES  213 

issue.  Forces  detached  for  side  issues  are  inexcusable, 
unless  they  keep  larger  forces  out  of  the  immediate  oppo- 
sition. 

Small  forces  cannot  safely  undertake  extended  turning 
movements,  etc.  Concentration  within  supporting  dis- 
tance is  necessary,  unless  each  part  is  strong  enough  to 
win  by  itself,  is  too  small  to  fight  anyway,  or  is  extremely 
mobile,  as  mounted  cavalry. 

Always  avoid  fighting  on  ground  of  the  enemy's  own 
choosing,  especially  if  he  has  had  time  to  prepare  it  for 
you.  By  maneuvering,  shift  the  scene  if  possible  to  your 
own  advantage. 

On  the  march,  the  position  of  the  commander  is  with 
the  advance  guard,  where  he  can  get  timely  information  at 
first  hand ;  in  action,  it  is  where  he  can  best  see  and  control 
his  forces.  In  both  cases,  he  must  avoid  becoming  in- 
volved too  closely  with  the  actual  fighting,  which  makes 
clear  perception  of  the  whole  situation  quite  impossible. 

Going  into  a  fight,  each  organization  always  has  its 
scouts  well  out  in  front,  and  combat  patrols  well  out  on 
exposed  flanks,  and  so  far  advanced  as  to  prevent  our  line 
coming  unexpectedly  under  enfilading  fire. 

Communication  must  be  maintained  at  all  times  be- 
tween the  elements  of  a  command.  Thus  a  company  going 
into  action  signals  from  one  element  to  another,  and  a  man 
in  each  is  detailed  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  these  signals. 

A  passive  defense  is  deadly,  and  does  not  win  battles. 
"Aggressive  action  is  safer,  and  more  prolific  of  victory. 
Troops  that  have  the  initiative,  hold  the  advantage.  They 
force  the  others  to  play  their  game. 

The  position  of  your  firing  line  should  always  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  perpendicular  to  the  enemy's  line  of  fire. 

All  the  rules  for  fire  discipline  and  control  must  be 
observed;  but  most  disastrous  of  all  is  to  open  fire  before 
it  is  ordered,  or  to  allow  excitement  to  start  a  fight  with 
loss  of  fire  control.  It  will  hardly  be  regained  again  in 
that  fight. 

Never  open  fire  on  small  forces  of  the  enemy  ad- 


214  TACTICAL  RULES 

vancing  upon  you  in  position.  They  are  trying  to  get  you 
to  do  just  that,  so  they  may  report  back  what  your  position 
is.  Let  them  keep  coming.  They  cannot  hurt  you,  and 
will  have  to  surrender,  or  be  killed  in  trying  to  escape,  if 
you  let  them  get  close  enough. 

It  is  impossible  to  shoot  troops  out  of  position ;  hence 
an  attack  involves  a  determination  to  assault. 

Advancing  under  fire  the  greatest  attention  will  have 
to  be  given  by  all  the  men  to  keeping  a  general  alignment, 
and  to  avoiding  the  constant  tendency  to  bunch  into 
groups,  which  make  such  good  targets  for  the  enemy. 

While  actually  under  fire  you  can  move  only  straight 
forward  with  any  safety.  To  move  toward  a  flank  is  very 
dangerous,  to  move  toward  the  rear  is  deadly. 

Even  in  small  aflfairs,  a  few  rifles  delivering  fire  of 
position,  will  often  be  the  most  helpful  thing  for  the 
attack. 

In  selecting  defensive  fire  positions  for  delaying 
actions,  a  safe  line  of  withdrawal,  not  exposed  to  the 
enemy's  fire,  is  absolutely  essential.  Unless  the  situation 
demands  the  sacrifice  of  your  men,  this  is  the  determining 
consideration  in  your  selection  of  positions. 

In  withdrawing  from  these  positions,  keep  a  few  rifles 
busy  in  the  line,  while  the  others  get  back  to  the  next  posi- 
tion, or  otherwise  make  ready  for  a  safe  get  away. 

If  ordered  to  any  military  undertaking,  never  start  on 
your  mission  until  you  are  absolutely  sure  you  have  a 
clear  understanding  of  each  of  the  points  you  should  know 
for  its  proper  performance. 

And  finally,  the  least  appreciated  and  the  most  im- 
portant !  In  handling  your  men  in  the  presence  of  actual 
conditions,  you  absolutely  must  use  the  same  commands 
and  the  same  movements  that  they  have  been  taught  on 
the  drill  field.  The  men  are  going  to  be  sensitive  to  dis- 
turbance, and  to  anything  unusual.  If  they  think  that  you 
cannot  control  them  by  the  usual  methods,  that  their  train- 
ing has  failed,  they  are  likely  to  believe  that  everything  has 
gone  to  the  bad,  and  their  morale  will  go  with  it.     To  illus- 


TACTICAL  RULES  215 

trate :  A  company  was  unexpectedly  assembled  to  meet  an 
emergency.  The  lieutenant  in  command  told  the  men  to 
"  load  their  pieces."  A  wave  of  uncertainty  swept  down 
the  rank,  with  here  and  there  a  man  starting  nervously  to 
load.  The  old-soldier  first  sergeant,  instinctively  grasping 
the  situation,  jumped  in  front  and  commanded,  "  Steady." 
And  then,  "  Company,  Load !  "  And  the  rank  stiffened 
into  a  confident  machine. 


CHAPTER  XII 

MILITARY  COURTESY 

1.  YouK  observance  of  the  forms  of  military  courtesy 
is  a  measure  of  your  discipline  and  soldierliness.  All  the 
armies  of  the  civilized  world  from  time  immemorial  have 
found  it  advantageous  and  fitting  to  observe  strict  military 
etiquette  and  ceremonial ;  and  these  forms  are  much  the 
same  in  all  services. 

2.  The  military  salute  is  universal.  It  is  at  foundation 
but  a  courteous  recognition  between  two  individuals  of 
their  common  fellowship  in  the  same  honorable  profes- 
sion, the  profession  of  arms.  Regulations  require  that  it 
be  rendered  by  both  the  senior  and  the  junior,  as  bare 
courtesy  requires  between  gentlemen  in  civil  life.  It  is  in 
reality  rather  a  privilege  than  an  obligation,  it  betokens 
good  standing,  in  a  common  cause ;  a  prisoner,  not  being  in 
good  standing,  is  forbidden  by  regulations  to  render  the 
salute.  This  is  the  right  conception  of  saluting;  and  in 
this  light  you  will  see  that  the  question  should  be  not  "  shall 
I  salute,"  but  rather  "  may  I  salute?  "  And  if  you  are  an 
individual  out  of  ranks  you  can  rarely  go  wrong  by  salut- 
ing. The  salute  is  rendered  to  all  oflficers,  active  or  retired, 
of  the  Army,  Navy,  Marine  Corps,  and  Organized  Militia. 
Officers  of  foreign  military  and  naval  services  should  be 
saluted  as  those  of  our  own. 

3.  Whenever  the  "  Star  Spangled  Banner  "  is  played 
at  a  military  station,  or  at  any  place  where  persons  belong- 
ing to  the  military  service  are  present  in  their  official 
capacity  or  present  unofficially  but  in  uniform,  all  officers 
and  enlisted  men  present  will  stand  at  attention,  facing 
toward  the  music,  retaining  that  position  until  the  last  note 
of  the  air,  and  then  salute.  With  no  arms  in  hand  the 
salute  will  be  the  hand  salute.  The  same  respect  will  be 
observed  toward  the  national  air  of  any  other  country, 
when  it  is  played  as  a  compliment  to  official  representatives 
of  such  country. 

216 


MILITARY  COURTESY  217 

4.  Officers  or  enlisted  men  passing  the  uncased  colors 
will  render  the  prescribed  salute ;  with  no  arms  in  hand, 
the  salute  will  be  the  hand  salute,  using  the  right  hand,  the 
headdress  not  to  be  removed.  By  uncased  colors  is  meant 
those  that  are  not  in  their  waterproof  cases.  By  "  colors  " 
is  meant  the  national  and  regimental  flags  that  are  carried 
by  troops.  In  Army  Regulations  the  word  "  colors  "  is 
used  in  referring  to  regiments  of  infantry,  battalions  of 
engineers,  and  coast  artillery,  while  "  standard  '.'  refers  to 
cavalry  and  field  artillery.  By  "flag"  is  meant  the  na- 
tional emblem  that  waves  from  flag  poles  and  other 
stationary  poles.     They  are  not  saluted. 

5.  On  all  occasions,  outdoors,  and  also  in  public  'places, 
such  as  stores,  theatres,  railway  and  steamboat  stations, 
and  the  like,  the  salute  to  any  person  whatever  by  officers 
and  enlisted  men  in  uniform,  with  no  arms  in  hand, 
whether  on  or  off  duty,  shall  be  the  hand  salute,  the  right 
hand  being  used,  the  headdress  not  to  be  removed. 

6.  You  will  note  that  Army  Regulations  have  now 
rendered  obsolete  the  custom  of  removing  the  headdress 
on  certain  occasions.  Hereafter  this  will  never  be  done 
as  a  courtesy  or  salute.  But  one  form  of  salute  now 
obtains,  the  right  hand  raised  to  the  headdress.  No  salute 
is  rendered  if  uncovered. 

7.  Salutes  are  rendered  within  such  distances  as  allow 
individuals  and  insignia  of  rank  to  be  readily  recognized, 
about  thirty  paces.  You  would  salute  an  officer  where 
you  would  exchange  greetings  with  a  casual  acquaintance. 
The  soldier  is  "  at  attention  "  when  he  salutes ;  either  at 
a  halt  standing  at  attention,  or  if  walking,  marching  at 
attention.  This  requires  military  bearing,  clothing  prop- 
erly adjusted,  and  forbids  smoking  while  saluting.  If 
moving  at  a  trot  or  double  time,  he  must  first  come  to  the 
walk  or  quick  time.  An  officer  would  continue  at  double 
time  or  the  trot,  but  should  be  saluted  just  the  same. 

8.  An  enlisted  man  without  arms  mounted  or  dis- 
mounted salutes  with  the  right  hand.  If  officer  and  sol- 
dier are  approaching  each  other,  the  salute  is  commenced 


218  MILITARY  COURTESY 

when  six  paces  from  the  officer.  If  the  approach  does  not 
continue  to  within  six  paces  the  salute  is  rendered  at  the 
nearest  point.  If  passing  each  other  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, the  salute  is  rendered  just  as  they  pass.  It  is  a 
common  fault  to  begin  the  salute  six  feet  rather  than  six 
paces  away.  Count  your  steps  sometime  and  see  that  you 
are  prompt  enough. 

9.  In  saluting  look  at  the  person  saluted  and  maintain 
the  salute, until  it  has  been  acknowledged  or  the  officer  has 
passed.  The  precision  and  snap  with  which  you  salute 
marks  the  type  of  soldier  you  are  and  the  pride  you  take  in 
your  profession.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  return  a  snappy 
salute,'  and  a  strange  officer  is  apt  to  inquire  to  what  or- 
ganization you  belong.  There  are  so-called  salutes  so 
indifferently  made  that  an  officer  would  be  ashamed  to 
acknowledge  them.  He  could  feel  no  brotherhood  with 
such  a  soldier. 

ID.  Where  an  officer  is  recognized,  he  is  saluted  the 
same  whether  in  civilian  clothes  or  uniform.  The  enlisted 
man  may  be  in  uniform  or  in  civilian  clothes.  The  pres- 
ence of  ladies  with  either  party  makes  no  difference. 

11.  An  enlisted  man  out  of  ranks  armed  with  a  sabre, 
salutes  with  the  sabre  if  drawn,  otherwise  with  the  hand; 
armed  with  the  rifle,  he  makes  the  prescribed  rifle  salute, 
the  rifle  on  either  shoulder.  If  indoors,  he  salutes  at  the 
"  order,"  or  if  moving,  at  the  "  trail."  The  same  regula- 
tions obtain  as  to  distances,  and  looking  at  the  person  to 
be  saluted. 

12.  The  soldier  salutes  with  the  "  present  arms  "  only 
when  posted  as  a  sentinel.  When  a  mounted  man,  officer 
or  soldier,  wishes  to  address  or  is  addressed  by  his  military 
superior,  he  first  dismounts. 

13.  An  enlisted  man  accompanying  an  officer,  should 
walk  about  two  paces  to  the  officer's  left  and  rear;  if 
riding,  this  distance  is  doubled. 

14.  A  noncommissioned  officer  in  command  of  a  de- 
tachment should  call  them  to  attention  and  himself  render 
the  salute  to  an  officer  as  above  explained  for  a  single  indi- 


MILITARY  COURTESY  219 

vidual.  If  the  officer  passed  in  rear,  the  detachment 
would  be  brought  to  attention  and  so  held  until  he  had 
passed,  but  no  salute  would  be  rendered. 

15.  When  an  officer  approaches  a  group  of  enlisted 
men  not  in  ranks,  the  first  one  to  perceive  him  should  call 
"  attention  "  so  that  all  will  hear,  when  all  stand  at  atten- 
tion, and  at  the  proper  point,  all  salute.  If  walking  to- 
gether the  same  rules  obtain,  except  that  the  salutes  would 
be  rendered  without  halting.  If  indoors  the  same  rules 
obtain  except  that  if  unarmed  they  uncover  and  that  no 
one  salutes  unless  spoken  to ;  if  armed  all  would  salute. 
One  exception  to  this  rule — if  seated  at  meals  the  soldiers 
do  not  rise  at  the  call  "  attention,"  but  cease  eating  and 
remain  sitting  at  attention.  Of  course,  any  individual  ad- 
dressed by  the  officer  would  rise.  By  "  indoors  "  is  meant 
military  offices,  barracks,  quarters,  and  similar  places — it 
does  not  refer  to  store  houses,  riding  halls,  stables,  post 
exchange  buildings,  hotels,  etc. 

16.  Upon  the  approach  of  an  officer  indoors,  the  en- 
listed man,  if  unarmed,  uncovers  and  stands  at  attention, 
and  does  not  salute.  If  armed  with  a  rifle,  he  salutes  from 
the  position  of  the  order  or  the  trail ;  if  armed  and  un- 
covered, he  should  cover  before  saluting  if  practicable.  A 
soldier  with  belt,  side  arms,  pistol,  sabre,  or  bayonet,  is 
considered  armed. 

17.  Whenever  holding  conversation  with  a  superior,  g 
soldier  should  stand  strictly  at  attention,  the  conversation 
being  preceded  by  the  military  salute;  and  it  is  only  by 
strictly  observing  the  position  of  attention  that  you  may 
be  really  at  ease,  any  half-way  measures  will  tend  to  make 
you  self-conscious  and  ill  at  ease.  And  do  not  keep  as- 
suming that  the  officer  has  finished  his  remarks  and  thus 
'have  to  repeat  your  salute  at  leaving.  It  is  much  more 
military  to  stand  pat  until  he  has  dismissed  you  with  such 
words  as  "  that  will  do,"  then  you  may  make  a  dignified 
salute  on  departure. 

18.  The  soldier  actually  at  work  does  not  stop  his  work 
to  render  a  salute,  unless  addressed  by  the  officer.     Driv- 


220  MILITARY  COURTESY 

ing  or  riding  in  a  carriage  or  other  vehicle,  the  soldier 
would  salute  as  though  walking,  but  without  rising. 

19.  In  camp  a  mounted  man  should  not  take  his 
horse  up  in  front  of  an  officer's  tent  where  he  may  soil  the 
ground.  Leave  him  tied  or  held  at  a  little  distance.  Even 
when  he  brings  up  the  officer's  horse,  he  may  hold  him  a 
little  way  off,  until  the  officer  directs  him  to  come  closer. 

20.  In  holding  the  horse  for  an  officer  to  mount,  the 
orderly  should  invariably  stand  on  the  off  side  facing  the 
horse's  shoulder,  both  reins  held  firmly  in  the  right  hand 
just  behind  the  bit,  the  left  hand  holding  the  right  stirrup 
and  adjusting  it  neatly  to  the  officer's  foot  as  his  leg  comes 
down  in  the  mount.  If  the  orderly  has  his  own  horse 
with  him,  he  must  hold  that  horse  out  of  the  way  on  the 
off  side  of  the  officer's  horse. 

21.  An  enlisted  man  in  conversation  with  a  military 
superior  will  properly  use  the  third  person,  i.  e.,  he  will  ask, 
does  the  sergeant  intend  so  and  so  ?  Not  do  you  intend  so 
and  so?     Or,  does  the  lieutenant  want  his  horse?  etc. 

22.  Where  a  verbal  message  is  carried  between  officers 
the  messenger  prefaces  the  message  with  "  The  Adjutant 
presents  his  compliments " — The  commanding  officer. 
Captain  so  and  so,  whoever  sends  it — "  and  directs,  asks, 
says,  requests,  etc.,"  followed  by  the  message. 

23.  To  report  for  duty  as  orderly,  the  man  proceeds  to 
the  officer  to  whom  detailed,  stands  at  attention  before  him 
and  when  the  officer  gives  him  opportunity  salutes  and  re- 
ports in  these  words,  "  Sir,  Private ,  Company  I,  loth 

Infantry,  reports  as  orderly." 

24.  At  all  times  and  places  outside  his  quarters  an  en- 
listed man  should  be  neat  and  orderly  in  his  appearance. 
His  hat  and  clothing  should  be  properly  adjusted,  and  but- 
toned up.  Even  fatigue  uniform  should  be  properly  worn. 
In  the  field  in  hot  weather,  it  is  allowable  in  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances to  have  the  top  button  of  the  shirt  unbuttoned 
— but  never  the  shirt  sleeves  rolled  up.  At  formations, 
such  as  retreat,  everything  should  be  the  neatest  possible. 
There  is  something  wrong  with  the  organization  whose 


MILITARY  COURTESY  221 

members  are  habitually  indifferent  to  their  soldierly  ap- 
pearance. 

25.  Every  one  should  know  the  various  insignia  worn 
by  officers  to  indicate  their  grade. 

They  are  found  on  the  collar  of  the  O.  D.  shirt,  on  the 
shoulder  straps  and  loops  of  coats,  and  on  sleeves  of  over- 
coat, and  are  as  follows  on  the  collars  and  shoulders : 

Major  General — two  stars. 

Brigadier  General — one  star. 

Colonel — eagle. 

Lieutenant  Colonel — oak  leaf,  silver. 

Major — oak  leaf,  gold. 

Captain — two  silver  bars. 

First  Lieutenant — one  silver  bar. 

On  overcoat  and  full  dress  coat  sleeves  a  knot  of  three 
loops  of  braid  for  officers  below  the  grade  of  general. 

Colonel — the  knot  contains  five  rows  of  braid. 

Lieutenant  Colonel — four  rows. 

Major — three  rows. 

Captain — two  rows. 

First  Lieutenant — one  row. 

26.  No  honors  are  paid  by  troops  when  on  the  march, 
in  trenches  or  on  outpost,  except  that  they  may  be  called 
to  attention. 

No  salute  is  rendered  when  marching  in  double  time. 

Arms  are  not  presented  by  troops  except  in  the 
ceremonies. 

The  commander  of  a  body  of  troops  salutes  all  general 
officers  and  the  commander  of  his  post,  regiment,  squad- 
ron, or  immediate  organization,  by  bringing  his  command 
to  attention  and  saluting  in  person.  He  salutes  all  others 
without  bringing  it  to  attention. 

When  two  officers  exchange  salutes,  each  commanding 
a  body  of  troops,  the  troops  are  brought  to  attention  during 
the  exchange.  . 

An  officer  in  command  of  troops  is  saluted  by  all  junior 
officers  and  by  men  out  of  ranks.  He  does  not  return 
these  salutes. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

GUARD  DUTY 

I.'  Guards  are  for  the  purpose  of  ensuring  security :  to 
secure  government  property  from  molestation ;  to  secure 
the  observance  of  miHtary  regulations,  police  and  sanitary  ; 
to  secure  military  prisoners ;  and  to  secure  undisturbed 
rest  and  the  impossibility  of  surprise  for  troops  in  service. 
The  first  three  duties  are  performed  by  interior  guards 
and  the  regulations  governing  this  class  of  guard  duty  are 
set  forth  in  detail  in  the  volume  called  "  Manual  of  In- 
terior Guard  Duty." 

2.  Not  so  many  years  ago  the  efficiency  of  a  command 
was  measured  by  the  excellence  of  its  performance  of  in- 
terior guard.  These  were  the  days  when  close  order  drill 
and  ceremonies  were  practically  the  only  interest  in  the 
garrison,  as  the  English  put  it  "the  days  of  spit  and 
polish."  To-day  the  one  object  of  all  our  training  is  field 
efficiency,  and  commanding  officers  rather  deplore  the 
amount  of  time  their  men  must  sacrifice  to  the  perform- 
ance of  necessary  guard  duties,  which  give  scant  return  in 
training  for  efficiency  compared  with  the  time  they 
consume. 

3.  Duty  as  a  sentinel  is  the  most  responsible,  dignified, 
and  serious  individual  duty  that  a  soldier  may  be  called 
upon  to  perform.  He  must  be  taught  to  look  upon  this 
duty  in  that  light.  Delinquencies,  such  as  temporary 
absence,  drinking  intoxicating  liquors,  or  neglect,  which 
might  not  be  serious  in  ordinary  circumstances,  become 
grave  offenses  when  committed  by  a  soldier  who  is  on  the 
guard  detail. 

4.  While  the  regular  service  must  keep  up  a  rigid 
obseryance  of  all  the  regulations  of  the  Guard  Manual, 
nonprofessional  soldiers  will  have  so  few  opportunities  to 
employ  interior  guards  that  it  appears  impracticable  for 
them  to  attempt  to  learn  and  keep  in  mind  all  these 

222 


GUARD  DUTY  223 

detailed  regulations  and  observances.  They  have  so  much 
to  learn  that  is  absolutely  necessary  for  field  efficiency  that 
they  will  do  better  to  substitute  for  study  of  the  Manual 
of  Interior  Guard  Duty,  a  thorough  appreciation  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  guard,  and  then  to  take  up  the 
detailed  study  of  the  Manual  if  some  unforeseen  occasion 
makes  its  practice  necessary.  Even  the  regular  officers 
and  soldiers  must  continually  refer  to  the  Manual  to  be 
exactly  sure  of  each  and  all  its  niceties.  This  duty  is 
very  much  in  the  same  category  with  ceremonies. 

5.  The  following  are  the  General  Orders  applying  to 
all  sentinels,  who  are  required  to  memorize  them.  Where 
the  regular  service  offers  opportunity  for  frequent  use  of 
these  orders,  it  is  practicable  for  soldiers  to  remember 
them  verbatim.  For  others,  who  have  not  this  oppor- 
tunity, it  would  appear  more  reasonable  to  digest  thor- 
oughly their  meaning,  so  that  unexpected  guard  duty 
might  be  performed  intelligently,  and  the  polish  be  put 
on  as  time  warranted. 

"  To  take  charge  of  this  post  and  all  Government  prop- 
erty in  view. 

"  To  walk  my  post  in  a  military  manner,  keeping 
always  on  the  alert  and  observing  everything  that  takes 
place  within  sight  or  hearing. 

"  To  report  all  violations  of  orders  I  am  instructed  to 
enforce. 

"  To  repeat  all  calls  from  posts  more  distant  from  the 
guardhouse  than  my  own. 

"  To  quit  my  post  only  when  properly  relieved. 

"  To  receive,  obey,  and  pass  on  to  the  sentinel  who  re- 
lieves me  all  orders  from  the  commanding  officer,  officer 
of  the,  day,  and  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  of 
the  guard  only. 

"  To  talk  to  no  one  except  in  line  of  duty. 

"  In  case  of  fire  or  disorder  to  give  the  alarm. 

"  To  allow  no  one  to  commit  a  nuisance  on  or  near  my 
post. 

"  In  any  case  not  covered  by  instructions  to  call  the 
corporal  of  the  guard. 


224  GUARD  DUTY 

"  To  salute  all  officers,  and  all  colors  and  standards 
not  cased. 

"  To  be  especially  watchful  at  night,  and,  during  the 
time  for  challenging,  to  challenge  all  persons  on  or  near 
my  post,  and  to  allow  no  one  to  pass  without  proper 
authority." 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  sentinels  posted  at  the 
guard  house  or  guard  tent  will  be  required  to  memorize  the 
following : 

"  Between  reveille  and  retreat,  to  turn  out  the  guard 
for  all  persons  designated  by  the  commanding  officer,  for 
all  colors  or  standards  not  cased,  and  in  time  of  war  for 
all  armed  parties  approaching  my  post,  except  troops  at 
drill  and  reliefs  and  detachments  of  the  guard. 

"  At  night,  after  challenging  any  person  or  party,  to 
advance  no  one  but  call  ths  corporal  of  the  guard,  repeat- 
ing the  answer  to  the  challenge." 

6.  These  orders  contain  one  provision,  "  To  walk  my 
post  in  a  military  manner,"  that  in  many  circumstances 
will  not  result  in  efficiency.  As  the  sentinel  at  an  out- 
guard  remains  immovable  and  alertly  watching,  so  often 
in  interior  guards,  a  sentinel  can  much  better  observe  what 
he  is  stationed  to  guard,  at  a  fixed  point  somewhat  re- 
moved from  it.  Where  the  sentinel  walks  a  beat  he  is  too 
prone  to  move  in  some  regular  manner  that  makes  it  easy 
for  an  observant  person  to  take  advantage  of  his  back 
being  turned;  and  not  infrequently  commanding  officers 
have  eliminated  this  clause  of  orders  and  stationed  senti- 
nels on  stationary  posts  with  orders  to  keep  certain  ground 
under  constant  observation.  This  idea  is  particularly 
applicable  to  the  sentinel  on  the  picket  line  in  the  form 
of  a  hollow  square,  where  he  is  posted  in  the  centre; 
and  it  should  always  be  considered  in  selecting  a  sentinel's 
post. 

7.  A  fundamental  principle  of  guard  duty  is  that  the 
sentinel  shall  observe  everything  that  takes  place  within 
sight  and  hearing  of  his  post.  Even  if  something  appear 
at  the  time  so  trifling  that  the  sentinel  does  not  consider  it 


GUARD  DUTY  225 

of  sufficient  importance  to  report  to  his  corporal,  neverthe- 
less a  later  investigation  would  expect  to  find  him  able  to 
give  a  clear  statement  of  the  facts,  including  a  fairly 
accurate  idea  of  the  time  of  the  occurrence.  Sentinels 
are  the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  commanding  officer,  to  see, 
hear,  and  mentally  record  everything.  Through  them 
post  and  camp  regulations  are  enforced  v^^hile  the  garrison 
sleeps. 

8.  It  is  also  fundamental  that  sentinels  are  given  dig- 
nity and  authority  fully  commensurate  with  their  great 
responsibilities.  Officers  of  all  grades  as  well  as  enlisted 
men  are  required  to  respect  their  authority.  They  take 
orders  from  no  one  except  those  officers  directly  connected 
with  the  guard.  Such  dignity  must  lend  grave  serious- 
ness to  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

9.  In  addition  to  the  above  general  orders  which  apply 
to  all  sentinels,  each  sentinel  is  invariably  given  certain 
special  orders.  These  special  orders  always  define  the 
sentinel's  post  and  then  tell  him  what  he  is  there  for,  what 
his  special  duties  are  as  sentinel  on  this  particular  post. 
These  should  be  explicit,  simple,  common  sense,  and 
clearly  understood  by  all.  In  inspecting  your  guard  it  is 
of  first  importance  to  see  that  your  sentinels  have  a  clear 
working  knowledge  of  their  special  orders. 

ID.  Responsibility  for  the  proper  instruction  of  the 
members  of  the  guard,  and  for  the  proper  performance  by 
them  of  all  their  duties,  rests  first  on  the  officer  of  the  day 
and  then  down  through  each  of  the  subordinate  com- 
manders to  the  corporal  of  the  relief,  who  must  make  it 
his  personal  business  to  see  that  the  members  of  his 
relief  are  properly  instructed. 

II.,  In  the  field  your  interior  guards  will  generally  be 
stable  guards  only.  In  riot  duty  the  question  of  guards 
assimies  grave  importance.  Even  here,  however,  it  will 
be  the  faithfulness  and  efficiency  with  which  the  sentinel 
carries  out  his  special  orders  that  will  count,  rather  than 
his  observance  of  prescribed  formalities.  Do  not  mis- 
understand that  it  is  intended  to  make  too  light  of  formali- 
16 


326  GUARD  DUTY 

ties ;  understand  rather  that  where  time  necessitates  selec- 
tion, you  should  choose  first  efficiency,  and  then  if  time 
permits,  take  up  a  study  of  the  formalities.  But  do  not 
feel  that  it  is  impossible  for  you  to  perform  efficient  guard 
duty  in  case  emergency  arises  because  you  have  not  had 
time  to  learn  the  formalities.  Earnestness  and  faithful- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  sentinel  in  carrying  out  intelligent 
special  orders  covering  the  duties  that  he  has  been  posted 
there  to  perform,  will  result  in  the  necessary  efficiency  in 
actual  service.  Earnestness  and  faithfulness  yoii  must 
have,  but  with  your  personnel,  it  is  believed  you  can  get 
them  as  surely  by  an  appeal  to  an  intelligent  understanding 
of  their  necessity,  as  by  the  slower  regular  service  process 
of  great  attention  to  detail,  formality,  and  all  the  dignity 
of  ceremony  and  occasion. 

12.  While  you  may  dispense  with  the  ceremony  of 
Guard  Mount,  you  may  not  dispense  with  the  formality 
of  inspection  of  the  guard  detail  before  it  enters  upon  its 
tour.  The  guard  detail  should  be  formed  and  you  should 
inspect  its  members  thoroughly  to  see  that  they  are 
properly  clothed  and  equipped,  their  arms  in  good  condi- 
tion, and  that  all  are  in  physical  condition  for  the  work, 
observing  particularly  any  signs  of  their  having  been 
drinking;  and  then  formally  assign  the  officers  and  the 
noncommissioned  officers  to  their  respective  offices  of 
command  in  the  guard. 

13.  While  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  sentinel  be 
posted  with  the  formalities  prescribed,  you  must,  neverthe- 
less, see  that  he  is  posted  with  such  formality  as  will  im- 
press him  with  the  seriousness  of  his  duties,  a  knowledge 
of  the  limits  of  his  post,  and  an  appreciation  of  what  he  is 
put  there  to  do. 

14.  The  dignity  of  the  sentinel  on  post  should  be 
reflected  in  the  highest  degree  by  smartness  in  dress, 
equipment  and  military  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  sentinel. 
He  stands  alone,  under  the  eyes  of  all  who  pass.  He 
should  be  an  example  in  soldierliness.     He  represents  your 


GUARD  DUTY  227 

organization,  whose  efficiency  is  likely  to  be  judged  by  his 
conduct  and  appearance. 

15.  The  sentinel  salutes  at  a  halt,  faced  toward  the 
person  he  is  saluting,  and  with  the  present  arms.  He  is 
always  at  the  port  arms  when  in  communication  with 
anyone. 

16.  Except  in  "  running  guards  "  it  is  the  custom  for 
guards  to  be  mounted  for  a  twenty-four  hours'  tour,  and 
for  the  individual  sentinel  to  be  on  post  for  two  con- 
secutive hours,  afternating  with  four  hours  off,  during 
which  he  remains  at  the  guard  house  as  a  member  of  the 
guard  under  certain  regulations. 

17.  In  case  you  are  called  into  actual  service  in  time 
of  war  you  will  have  to  study  the  Guard  Manual  to  learn 
the  many  rules  governing  the  conduct  of  interior  guards, 
learn  all  the  ceremony  attending  the  posting  of  reliefs,  etc., 
and  particularly  those  rules  governing  the  conduct  of 
prisoners  and  of  sentinels  over  them. 

18.  Orders  for  sentinels  on  outpost  are  discussed  in 
the  chapter  on  outposts.  Running  guards  are  used  in  field 
service,  where  the  whole  night  is  so  divided  that  each  man 
walks  but  once  and  sleeps  the  rest  of  the  night. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

RIOT  DUTY 

I.  Obedience  to  law  is  normally  the  result  of  public 
opinion.  When  this  fails  in  individual  cases,  the  police 
power  is  employed.  Where  many  men  join  together  in 
open  violation  of  law,  in  defiance  of  public  opinion,  they 
are  no  longer  quite  reasonable,  and  their  misconduct  may 
soon  pass  the  power  of  the  civil  authorities  to  control.  To 
meet  this  contingency  every  government  maintains  a  mili- 
tary force.  The  Organized  Militia  is  the  military  force 
thus  maintained  by  each  state;  our  army  is  that  of  the 
Nation,  and  is  not  infrequently  called  to  this  duty. 

3.  While  you  are  training  for  duty  in  the  first  line  of 
defense  of  the  nation,  it  is  still  possible  that  you  may  be 
called  to  duty  in  preserving  domestic  law  and  order.  And 
while  the  following  applies  to  state  troops  more  par- 
ticularly, it  is  greatly  in  the  public  interest  that  all  citizens 
have  an  understanding  of  these  underlying  principles,  and 
of  what  is  to  be  expected  of  troops  in  the  performance  of 
this  duty.  The  National  Guard  will  in  fact  be  more 
often  called  into  service  for  this  duty,  than  for  that  of  the 
federal  government.  They  therefore  particularly  must  be 
fully  prepared  to  meet  a  call  from  their  state,  and  to  meet 
it  promptly,  and  to  carry  it  out  wisely  and  efficiently. 

3.  Most  officers  dread  this  duty  on  account  of  its  un- 
certainties, and  on  every  hand  there  are  requests  for 
definite  instructions  as  to  its  conduct.  This  is  natural,  for 
it  is  realized  that  in  dealing  with  the  mob  we  are  dealing 
with  unreason. 

The  nation  and  the  states  both  recognize  how  uncer- 
tainty will  assail  you  as  you  contemplate  the  performance 
of  this  duty,  and  recognize  also  the  impracticability  of 
laying  down  definite  rules  of  conduct  to  govern  you  in 
each  particular  case.  Both  have  therefore  enacted  gen- 
erous laws  to  protect  you  in  the  conscientious  performance 
228 


RIOT  DUTY  229 

of  this  necessary  duty.  For  state  service,  you  should  look 
up  your  own  state  law,  and  see  what  authority  and  protec- 
tion it  gives  you ;  and  similarly  for  federal  service. 

4.  Your  uncertainties  will  largely  cease  if  you  will  stop 
to  think  about  it  in  this  light,  realize  how  the  law  reposes 
confidence  in  your  judgment;  intelligence,  and  faithful- 
ness, and  backs  you  up  absolutely  so  long  as  you  con- 
scientiously use  them.  If  an  officer  have  sufficient 
knowledge  and  judgment  to  justify  his  appointment  to 
leadership,  and  has  learned  the  fundamental  principles 
that  govern  in  riot  duty,  he  should  be  confident  of  his 
ability  to  meet  wisely  whatever  situation  may  arise. 

5.  State  troops  may  be  called  to  this  duty  by  any  one 
of  the  following  civil  officers :  A  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  a  county  judge  or  recorder,  or  city  judge  of  a  city, 
or  sheriflf  of  a  county,  or  mayor  of  a  city. 

6.  The  call  should  be  put  in  writing  and  must  state  the 
object  for  which  the  troops  are  called  into  service.  How 
that  object  shall  be  accomplished  by  the  troops  is  to  be 
determined  solely  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the  troops. 
Let  this  be  clear  in  your  mind :  the  civil  authorities  state 
what  object  the  troops  are  called  to  accomplish,  the  method 
by  which  it  is  accomplished  rests  solely  in  the  hands  of  the 
military  authorities.  If  the  civil  officer  calling  for  aid  is 
not  any  one  of  those  named  above  he  must  produce  the 
statute  on  which  he  bases  his  authority  for  calling  upon 
the  military.  In  any  case  insist  that  the  call,  and  the 
object  for  which  called,  be  put  in  writing. 

7.  Having  been  lawfully  called  upon,  the  military  of- 
ficer will  respond  promptly  by  ordering  out  the  military 
force  under  his  command,  or  such  part  of  it  as  his  judg- 
ment deems  necessary ;  and  shall  immediately  report  what 
he  has  done  and  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case  to  the 
Governor. 

8.  In  case  of  unsatisfied  question  as  to  the  general  or 
specific  object  of  the  call,  or  of  contradiction  between  the 
civil  officers  making  the  call  or  their  directions,  report  to 
your  Commander  in  Chief  by  the  most  direct  method 


230  RIOT  DUTY 

possible,  preferably  the  telephone ;  and  in  the  meantime 
use  your  forces  so  as  to  secure  the  public  peace  and  due 
observance  of  the  law  agreeably  to  the  call  made  upon  you 
by  the  civil  authorities. 

9.  You  will  now  exercise  your  own  judgment  in  using 
your  military  forces  to  carry  out  this  object.  In  the  pres- 
ence of  riot  the  law  requires  you  to  use,  and  protects  you  in 
using,  such  force  as  in  your  honest  judgment  is  necessary; 
and  to  cease  using  this  force  as  soon  as  the  object  is 
accomplished.  It  is  not  your  function  to  inflict  punish- 
ment, so  g^ard  against  allowing  this  natural  impulse  to 
carry  you  one  step  beyond  the  actual  accomplishment  of 
the  object  of  your  call. 

10.  The  psychology  of  crowds,*  or  of  mobs,  would  be 
most  profitable  reading  for  all  of  you,  equally  interesting 
and  helpful  to  you  as  civilians  and  as  officers.  Enough 
here,  however,  that  you  accept  the  following  fundamental 
truths  and  apply  them  in  regulating  your  conduct  in  any 
given  situation :  (a)  A  crowd  which  is  to  become  a  mob 
is  in  its  beginnings  cowardly.  Its  individuals  hesitate  at 
open  violation  of  law  and  are  fearful  of  its  consequences, 
(b)  These  individual  wills  are  going  to  merge  into  the 
"  crowd  will,"  unreasoning,  impulsive,  led  this  way  or 
that  by  forces  that  might  have  no  power  to  control  its 
members  as  individuals,  (c)  The  longer  the  crowd  is 
together,  the  greater  its  numbers,  the  more  it  is  harangued 
or  otherwise  dealt  with  as  a  unit,  more  completely  does 
this  "  crowd  will "  take  shape  and  gain  in  strength  and 
daring,  (d)  By  temporizing  with  a  crowd  you  merely 
allay  the  individual's  fear  of  consequences  and  aid  in  build- 
ing up  a  unit  of  action  which  will  become  the  unreasoning 
mob.  (e)  In  its  earliest  stages  the  mob  itself  is  cowardly, 
of  necessity  undisciplined  and  with  no  certain  leader  or 
tactics.  Brought  face  to  face  with  the  perfectly  ordered 
and  quiet  discipline  and  force  of  the  military  it  recognizes 
its  own  inferiority  and  is  apprehensive  of  consequences, 
(f)   If  the  military  shows  uncertainty  or  vacillation,  at- 

*  "  Psychology  of  War  and  Causes  of  War,"  Eltinge. 


RIOT  DUTY  231 

tempts  to  temporize  or  treat  with  it  as  equals,  it  immedi- 
ately gains  assurance  and  courage,  (g)  If  now  the  com- 
manding officer  of  the  troops  makes  the  egregious  blunder 
of  bluffing  in  any  way,  for  example,  by  firing  blank  car- 
tridges or  firing  over  the  head  of  the  mob,  the  spirit  of 
daring  and  recklessness  will  spring  to  the  fore,  and  lead  to 
God  knows  what  of  bloodshed  and  destruction.  The 
moral  weakness  or  the  falsely  conceived  gentleness  and 
mercy  of  the  commanding  officer  will  result  in  ten-fold 
suffering.  (To  forestall  the  possibility  of  some  com- 
manding officer  thus  weakening,  N.  Y.  Regulations  posi- 
tively forbid  issuing  blank  ammunition  to  troops  going  on 
this  duty.)  (h)  A  crowd  split  into  sections  will  rarely 
unite  again,  (i)  A  mob  is  especially  subject  to  the  dis- 
organization attendant  upon  losing  its  leader  or  leaders. 

11.  The  fact  that  troops  have  been  called  out  estab- 
lishes the  fact  that  the  time  has  come  for  the  use  of  force. 
The  military  must  represent  this  force,  dignified,  absolute, 
and  without  thought  of  arguing.  They  must  impress 
themselves  upon  the  crowd  as  representing  the  immutable 
power  of  the  law,  solemn,  dignified  and  unswerving.  The 
directions  of  their  commanding  officer  must  be  carried  out 
promptly  and  without  argument.  If  a  commanding  of- 
ficer of  troops  ordered  a  mob  to  disperse,  he  fails  utterly 
in  his  conception  of  the  dignity  of  his  office,  and  the  dignity 
of  his  troops,  and  of  the  part  they  are  playing  in  the 
government  of  his  State,  if  he  does  not  employ  such  force 
as  to  result  in  prompt  and  complete  compliance  with  his 
orders.  A  few  deliberate,  conscientious  shots  fired  at  the 
very  first  time  the  mob  fails  to  obey  your  orders,  will  not 
only  save  lives  in  handling  that  particular  mob,  but  will 
have  established  in  the  minds  of  all  the  dignity  and  power 
which  the  military  represents,  and  thereby  will  have  saved 
bloodshed  and  destruction  at  other  points  of  contact  be- 
tween the  troops  and  the  rioters.  It  is  the  true  humani- 
tarian who  shows  relentless  severity  at  the  very  outset. 
This  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  dealing  with  mobs. 

12.  Policemen  may  push  and  jostle,  club  and  be  club- 


282  RIOT  DUTY 

bed,  step  on  toes  and  threaten  to  shoot  without  doing  so ; 
but  the  miHtary  descends  absolutely  from  their  true  posi- 
tion of  dignity  and  their  true  function  in  the  law  when 
they  resort  to  such  practices  in  dealing  with  a  mob.  They 
have  been  called  as  a  last  resort  to  defend  the  majesty  of 
the  law,  in  mercy  let  them  do  it  with  dignity,  severity  and 
without  compromise.  Done  in  this  way  their  tour  will 
be  shortened,  lives  and  property  will  be  saved,  they  will 
be  called  less  often  to  this  duty,  and  the  general  welfare 
of  the  community  and  the  State  will  be  enhanced. 

13.  The  National  Guard  must  be  prepared  to  meet  this 
call  promptly.  It  may  com^  at  any  time.  You  should 
have  not  only  complete  equipment,  arms,  ammunition,  suit- 
able clothing,  and  provision  already  perfected  for  com- 
missary supplies,  but  above  all  you  must  have  a  sure 
working  system  of  notification  to  all  the  members  of  the 
command.  One  of  the  best  means  for  this  is  employing 
the  squad  system,  the  organization  commander  having  the 
names  and  addresses  of  his  squad  leaders  always  with  him 
day  and  night ;  the  squad  leaders  having  similar  lists  of 
their  own  men.  Each  organization  should  take  occasion 
to  test  the  efficacy  of  its  system  of  notification  by  unex- 
pectedly calling  its  members  at  different  times. 

14.  Note  that  even  the  "  issuing  "  of  blank  ammuni- 
tion to  troops  called  to  this  duty  is  forbidden.  In  the 
absence  of  suitable  "  guard  ammunition  "  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  use  service  ammunition. 

15.  It  is  impracticable  to  give  detailed  instructions  for 
the  conduct  of  troops  on  this  duty.  Observance  of  the 
following  principles,  and  application  of  your  tactical  train- 
ing, should  enable  you  to  handle  any  situation : 

(a)  Do  not  dissipate  your  strength  by  making  small 
detachments  for  various  purposes,  but  always  have  enough 
men  together  at  any  point  of  contact  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  the  mob  getting  the  better  of  the  situation,  and 
if  practicable  have  sufficient  force  so  to  overawe  the  mob 
that  it  will  recognize  your  power  to  enforce  your  orders, 
and  disperse  without  necessity  for  aggressive  measures. 


RIOT  DUTY  233 

(b)  In  the  execution  of  any  movement  always  hold 
out  a  reserve  for  emergency. 

(c)  Acquire  and  maintain  the  moral  effect  on  the  un- 
disciplined mob,  of  the  quiet,  positive,  solid  and  precise 
execution  of  movements  by  your  own  forces. 

(d)  Enforce  rigid  discipline,  the  strictest  observance 
of  military  forms  and  particularly  rigid  fire  discipline. 
Men  should  fire  only  at  the  command  of  their  immediate 
commanding  officer,  excepting  an  individual  firing  in  self- 
defense,  and  sharpshooters  who  have  been  instructed  to 
kill  any  parties  firing  or  throwing  missiles  at  the  troops. 

(e)  If  the  men  have  been  so  trained  that  they  may  be 
controlled  accurately  by  visual  signals,  their  use  on  this 
duty  will  add  greatly  to  the  moral  effect  on  the  mob. 

(f)  You  will  be  as  particular  about  security  in  this 
duty,  as  in  the  field  against  the  enemy,  guarding  particu- 
larly your  flanks  and  rear  from  the  possibility  of  surprise. 

(g)  The  commanding  officer  should  immediately  es- 
tablish a  system  for  gaining  information  as  to  the  inten- 
tions and  movements  of  the  rioters.  He  will  use  for  this 
purpose  whatever  opportunities  local  conditions  may  offer. 

(h)  Troops  will  arrest  all  individuals  found  in  open 
resistance  to  the  civil  authorities,  and  are  required  to  over- 
come such  resistance,  and  to  secure  and  keep  the  peace  by 
the  use  of  whatever  force  their  immediate  commander 
deems  necessary.  Parties  arrested  are  immediately 
turned  over  to  the  civil  authorities.  If  this  arrest  is  not 
made  in  connection  with  the  open  violation  or  resistance, 
but  at  a  later  time,  for  example,  the  next  day,  it  would 
then  be  made  by  due  process  of  law,  the  law  officer  being 
backed  up  if  necessary  by  the  military  power. 

(i\  In  the  case  of  unlawful  assemblies  to  be  dispersed, 
warning  must  first  be  given  by  a  civil  officer  if  one  be 
available,  otherwise  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
troops.  This  warning  cautions  so-called  innocent  by- 
standers, and  curiosity  mongers,  that  their  presence  makes 
them  equally  guilty  with  the  rest.  They  must  be  given  a 
reasonable  opportunity  to  get  away. 


234  RIOT  DUTY 

(j)  Where  the  riots  are  the  result  of  conflicts  between 
two  parties  in  the  community,  as  in  the  case  of  labor  dis- 
putes, observe  the  strictest  impartiality.  Avoid  even  the 
appearance  of  taking  sides.  Do  not  accept  from  either 
party  such  assistance  as  means  of  transportation,  sub- 
sistence or  quarters.  The  supreme  commander  should 
consult  with  both,  making  his  position  as  an  impartial 
instrument  of  law  for  the  preservation  of  peace  and  pro- 
tection of  life  and  property  clear  to  both  parties,  and  en- 
listing the  intelligent  co-operation  of  the  leaders  of  both 
sides  in  the  proper  observance  of  the  laws. 

(k)  The  above  function  is  for  the  supreme  commander 
alone.  His  subordinates,  officers  and  men,  must  avoid  any 
discussions  whatever,  appearing  only  to  be  what  they  are 
in  reality,  a  silent,  irresistible  force,  for  the  execution  of 
orders  in  sustaining  the  law. 

(1)  The  supreme  commander  should  take  such  steps, 
using  the  press  and  pulpit  if  practicable,  as  to  inform  all 
the  public  of  the  existing  conditions;  what  the  presence 
of  the  troops  really  means  for  the  impartial  but  relentless 
observance  of  law ;  that  all  present  at  unlawful  assemblies 
even  though  there  through  motives  of  curiosity  only,  are 
equally  liable ;  attempting  to  enlist  the  sympathy  and  co- 
operation of  all  good  citizens  with  the  work  of  the  troops. 

(m)  The  men  must  be  made  to  understand  that  they 
are  "  in  service  "  in  its  most  serious  sense ;  that  the  most 
rigid  discipline  must  be  observed  ;  that  in  dealing  with  citi- 
zens they  must  be  most  courteous,  yet  firm  in  carrying  out 
their  instructions;  that  they  pay  no  attention  whatever, 
nor  appear  to  hear,  insults  or  epithets  from  the  crowd ; 
that  their  immediate  officers  are  fully  responsible  for  their 
conduct,  and  that  the  law  protects  them  absolutely  in  their 
execution  of  all  legal  orders  from  their  officers. 

(n)  Distinguish  the  difference  between  a  crowd  and 
its  later  development,  an  ugly  mob.  A  crowd  may  be  dis- 
persed by  a  mere  show  of  force  and  firm  plain  spoken 
directions.  The  best  way  to  disperse  an  ugly  mob  is  to 
prevent  its  having  formed  and  reached  that  stage.     Early 


RIOT  DUTY  235 

information  and  smart  patrolling  will  often  accomplish 
this. 

(o)  Let  it  be  generally  known  that  any  person  display- 
ing  or  attempting  to  use  a  firearm  or  dangerous  weapon  or 
a  stone,  brick  or  other  missile,  will  be  fired  upon  by  a 
sharpshooter  without  warning.  At  such  time  as  this  such 
a  person  is  a  public  enemy,  to  be  dealt  with  relentlessly. 

(p)  Let  it  be  understood  by  all,  your  own  troops  as 
well  as  the  public,  that  the  force  which  you  will  use  in  en- 
forcing law  will  be  military  force,  and  military  force  only, 
bullets,  bayonets,  sabres,  used  as  they  would  be  used  in 
war.  That  sharpshooters  will  always  be  detailed  to  shoot 
down  parties  firing  or  throwing  missiles  at  the  troops. 
This  should  have  a  most  salutary  effect. 

(q)  Be  sure  that  every  man  to  the  lowest  private  has 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  mission  of  the  troops.  Then 
caution  them  to  avoid  any  talking  about  it  whatever.  Do 
not  tell  how  strong  you  are,  how  you  are  going  to  do  this 
or  that,  get  the  full  advantage  of  keeping  the  rioters 
igrvorant  of  your  strength  and  plans.  This  has  its  moral 
effect  as  well  as  physical. 

(r)  Avoid  doing  police  duty  unless  ordered  by  com- 
petent authority.     It  is  not  your  proper  function. 

(s)  The  horse  is  a  cavalryman's  best  weapon  for  per- 
suading crowds  before  they  have  reached  too  ugly  a  stage. 
Anticipating  this,  the  horses  must  be  so  accustomed  to 
the  unusual  sights  and  noises  as  to  be  indifferent  to  them, 
otherwise  a  single  rioter  might  disperse  a  patrol,  and  send 
it  flying  down  the  street  by  simply  kicking  over  an  ash  can 
at  an  opportune  moment.  Training  for  this  may  be  had 
at  the  armory  stables  by  giving  the  horses  experience  in 
all  kinds  of  pandemonium  under  the  direction  of  an  officer. 
It  is  important,  too,  that  horses  be  sure-footed,  and  some 
appliance  which  can  be  quickly  adjusted,  such  as  chain- 
calks,  should  always  be  kept  at  the  armory  ready 
for  use  when  weather  conditions  require.  The  horses' 
haunches  make  the  more  efficient  end  for  moving  a  crowd, 
and  the  more  nervous  the  haunches  appear  (stimulated  by 


236  RIOT  DUTY 

a  proper  use  of  the  spur)  the  more  efficient  they  are.  Re- 
member that  such  methods  are  for  use  only  with  small 
crowds  that  have  not  yet  reached  the  ugly  stage. 

(t)  In  dealing  with  an  ugly  mob  only  stem,  inflexible, 
military  means  may  be  used ;  and  remember  that  the 
sterner  and  more  inflexible  they  are  the  more  efficient  and 
humanitarian  they  will  prove.  In  this  case  you  will  never 
allow  your  troops  to  come  into  personal  contact  with  a 
mob,  if  it  can  be  avoided.  If  a  charge  is  necessary  it 
should  be  a  military  charge,  driven  home  so  relentlessly  as 
to  accomplish  its  purpose  promptly  and  surely,  and  to 
inspire  a  wholesome  awe  of  your  troops  in  the  future. 

We  are  now  contemplating  a  situation  that  requires 
actual  fighting,  and  all  the  tactical  principles  for  fighting 
an  enemy  in  war  time  are  equally  applicable  here.  Their 
weak  points  and  yours  are  the  flanks  and  rear.  Surprise 
and  unexpected  contact  are  as  valuable  here  as  in  the  field ; 
to  be  caught  changing  formations,  or  unable  to  maneuver 
and  get  into  position,  is  equally  dangerous.  Streets  and 
buildings  to  be  entered  or  left,  become  defiles  with  ,all 
their  advantages  to  the  enemy.  Entraining  and  detrain- 
ing are  particularly  dangerous  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  enemiy,  and  arrangements  must  always  be  made  to 
avoid  it.  Reconnaissance  and  guard  duty  must  be  per- 
formed with  the  utmost  faithfulness.  Whether  entrain- 
ing, on  the  streets,  or  in  camp  or  quarters,  it  will  be  a 
negligent  leader  who  allows  himself  or  his  men  to  run 
blindly  into  difficult  situations.  The  unexpected  and  per- 
sistent appearance  of  active  patrols  in  affected  districts 
will  be  as  disconcerting  to  rioters  as  to  the  commander  of 
an  enemy's  army.  In  marching  through  a  street,  your 
flanking  patrols  for  protection  from  rifle  fire  of  the  enemy, 
are  dismounted  sharpshooters  marching  on  either  side- 
walk, watching  the  roofs  and  windows  on  the  opposite 
side,  with  orders  to  shoot  any  person  starting  to  fire  or 
throw  missiles  at  the  troops.  In  the  case  of  large  mobs, 
your  turning  columns  are  troops  moving  in  parallel  streets, 
who  attack  the  mob  in  the  flank  and  rear  while  you  hold 


RIOT  DUTY  237 

them  in  front  (these  flank  and  rear  attacks  must  always 
be  made  so  as  to  leave  corresponding  streets  open  for  the 
mob's  retreat).  The  object  for  which  you  were  called  out 
is  your  military  mission.  The  information  you  immedi- 
ately proceed  to  gather  of  the  strength,  resources,  inten- 
tions and  movements  of  the  rioters,  is  your  military  in- 
formation as  to  the  enemy.  ISIaps  of  the  community  with 
all  necessary  data  as  to  location  of  public  buildings  and 
their  facilities,  lines  of  communication,  water  supply,  etc., 
are  your  military  information  of  the  terrain.  And  you 
should  go  about  gathering  this  information  as  assiduously 
as  you  would  in  actual  war. 

(u)  In  the  matter  of  controlling  the  situation  you 
should  endeavor  to  have  the  civil  authorities  close  all 
saloons  and  similar  places  that  will  be  natural  meeting 
places  for  the  unruly  elements.  You  may  also  find  it  best 
that  they  forbid  assemblies  at  such  times.  You  are  au- 
thorized in  some  states  to  close  all  drinking  places  within 
a  mile  of  your  camp.  A  judicious  selection  of  camp  sites 
should  enable  you  to  keep  most  drinking  places  closed. 

(v)  Be  particular  that  you  yourself  do  not  indulge  in 
drinking  at  this  time.  Conditions  may  require  you  to  take 
grave  responsibilities,  even  to  taking  life,  and  you  must 
not  be  in  a  position  where  it  may  be  said  your  judgment 
was  even  in  the  slightest  degree  influenced  by  drink. 

i6.  This  duty  will  furnish  unusual  opportunity  for 
military  training  of  the  highest  order,  and  all  leaders 
should  have  this  in  mind  and  make  the  best  use  of  it 
possible. 


CHAPTER  XV 

SMALL  ARMS  FIRING 

I.  The  day  of  the  American  soldier  being  a  natural 
rifle  shot  has  passed.  He  must  learn  the  art,  as  well  as 
any  other.  But  our  government  is  very  generous  in  its 
allowance  of  ammunition  for  this  purpose,  and  we  actu- 
ally expect  our  men  to  acquire  a  degree  of  precision  that 
will  justify  them  in  the  expectation  of  being  able  to  hit 
individuals  of  the  enemy,  rather  than  to  be  satisfied  with 
firing  in  that  general  direction,  which  is  about  all  that  can 
be  expected  in  most  foreign  services.  Those  who  have 
had  experience  in  big  game  hunting,  will  bring  to  the 
firing  line  an  advantage  which  can  hardly  be  estimated. 

3.  For  the  infantryman  the  rifle  is  everything,  and 
his  discipline  includes  the  cold  nerve  to  lie  in  the  firing 
line,  and  deliberately  make  hits  on  the  individuals  of  the 
enemy. 

Omitting  here  any  discussion  as  to  the  merits  of  dis- 
mounted fire  action  by  cavalry,  we  will  accept  the  fact 
that  this  is  one  of  its  important  functions.  Therefore,  the 
rifle  should  be  as  intimate  a  friend  of  the  cavalryman  as 
of  the  infantryman.  He  should  know  it  and  care  for  it 
as  conscientiously  as  he  does  for  his  horse ;  they  are  his 
dependence  in  battle  the  one  or  the  other  as  occasion 
demands. 

3.  As  in  learning  the  Manual  of  Arms,  so  here  the 
soldier  himself  is  his  own  best  instructor.  First  he 
should  have  his  own  rifle,  assigned  to  him  by  number,  with 
whose  mechanism  and  peculiarities  he  may  become  thor- 
oughly familiar.  He  must  first  be  taught  the  necessity 
for  proper  care  of  it  in  order  that  it  may  be  really  service- 
able ;  then  he  must  learn  how  to  care  for  it  and  then, 
knowing  that  his  shooting  success  is  to  be  determined  by 
the  results  he  gets  with  this  particular  rifle,  he  will  take 
a  personal  interest  in  it,  in  learning  it,  and  in  properly 
caring  for  it. 
238 


TO  CLEAN  THE  RIFLE  239 

4.  He  should  know  the  nomenclature  of  its  important 
parts,  how  these  parts  are  assembled,  and  their  peculiar 
functions.  This  information  he  may  obtain  from  the 
Ordnance  pamphlet,  "  Description  and  rules  for  the  man- 
agement of  the  U.  S.  Rifle  calibre  .30,"  which  the  first 
sergeant  should  lend  him ;  or  it  may  be  taught  him  as  part 
of  the  "  practical  instructions  "  in  the  squad.  The  rifle 
parts  of  particular  importance  are  the  bolt  and  magazine 
mechanisms,  which  he  will  learn  to  dismount,  and  then  to 
assemble.  He  will  learn  that  the  accuracy  of  his  rifle  is 
soon  ruined  if  the  bore  is  not  kept  absolutely  free  from 
rust ;  and  unless  the  effects  of  the  powder  gases  and 
metallic  fouling  are  thoroughly  removed  directly  after 
the  rifle  has  been  fired. 

5.  To  keep  the  rifle  free  from  rust  requires  only  faith- 
fulness and  an  oiled  rag,  wiping  all  the  metal  parts  when- 
ever exposed  to  dampness,  and  as  often  as  necessary. 
Quantities  of  free  oil  on  the  parts  are  not  only  unneces- 
sary, but  disadvantageous  in  accumulating  dirt. 

6.  To  clean  the  rifle  after  firing,  first  use  a  powder 
solvent  on  your  cloth  patches  until  the  barrel  is  perfectly 
clean;  then  polish  dry.  If  it  still  contains  metal  fouling, 
this  must  be  taken  out,  which  requires  the  use  of  a  special 
solvent,  see  Chapter  XVII.  As  this  solution  will  rust  the 
metal  very  quickly  where  exposed  to  the  air,  great  care 
should  be  taken  immediately  to  remove  it  thoroughly  from 
the  rifle  bore  by  the  use  of  dry  patches.  When  thoroughly 
dry  use  oiled  patches  before  putting  the  gun  away.  The 
rifle  will  probably  "  sweat  "  and  should  be  cleaned  with 
powder  solvent  again  after  twenty-four  hours.  Then 
dry  and  follow  with  an  oiled  patch. 

7.  Whenever  the  rod  is  used  in  cleaning  the  bore,  the 
bolt  should  be  removed  first,  and  the  rod  inserted  from 
the  breech,  the  muzzle  of  the  rifle  resting  against  a  block 
of  wood.  This  is  important  as  tfie  passage  of  a  metal 
rod  through  the  muzzle  results  in  wearing  off  the  sharp 
edges  of  the  rifling  at  the  most  important  point  for  con- 
trolling the  direction  of  the  bullet. 


240  SMALL  ARMS  FIRING 

8.  Learning  to  Shoot. — Shooting  is  a  gentleman's 
sport,  much  enjoyed  and  only  at  considerable  expense. 
The  Government  is  very  generous  in  furnishing  you  free 
opportunity  to  indulge  in  this  sport,  and  assists  you  in 
every  way  to  become  proficient  in  it.  Even  so,  many 
soldiers  miss  this  point,  and  get  but  little  out  of  target 
practice.  Looked  at  either  as  a  sport  or  as  a  serious  mat- 
ter of  individual  training  for  proficiency  in  time  of  war, 
it  really  is  up  to  every  man  to  take  a  personal  interest  and 
pride  in  being  a  good  shot,  and  each  leader  should  take 
especial  interest  in  having  his  group  excel  in  this.  Both 
the  Federal  and  State  Governments  recognize  the  element 
of  sport  in  shooting,  provide  for  several  competitions,  and 
oflFer  both  individual  and  team  prizes  in  profusion.  It 
should  be  the  company  commander's  object,  however,  so 
to  control  competitions  as  to  make  it  a  matter  of  participa- 
tion and  interest  for  eifery  individual,  not  for  a  few 
specialists,  who,  becoming  excellent  shots,  do  all  the  com- 
petitive shooting  for  the  company.  These  few  men,  be 
they  ever  so  expert,  will  hardly  be  able  to  deliver  the 
volume  of  fire  moderately  well  directed  that  will  be  so 
essential  to  the  success  of  the  company  on  the  battlefield. 
The  ambition  of  the  company  commander  should  be  a 
high  average  throughout  the  whole  organization  with  the 
smallest  number  of  really  poor  shots. 

g.  The  Small  Arms  Firing  Manual  is  one  of  the  "  ser- 
vice manuals  "  that  are  furnished  each  organization  for 
the  use  of  its  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers.  For 
teaching  the  men  to  shoot,  you  should  study  the  first  forty- 
six  pages,  until  you  really  know  their  contents,  and  are 
able  to  impart  them  in  practical  exercises  to  the  men. 
Any  able  bodied  man  can  learn  to  be  an  excellent  shot, 
an  expert  if  he  will,  practically  by  himself.  If  you  will 
take  the  rifle  that  you  are  going  to  shoot  with,  and  put  in 
your  leisure  time  workmg  on  the  four  preparatory  exer- 
cises, you  can  have  so  trained  your  eye  and  hand,  your 
breathing  and  muscles,  that  a  little  experience  on  the 
range  will  very  soon  perfect  you.    More  than  one  expert 


LEARNING  TO  SHOOT  241 

has  acquired  all  his  finesse  both  with  the  rifle  and  the 
pistol  in  his  own  room  or  dooryard,  without  actually  fir- 
hig  a  shot  for  weeks  at  a  time. 

10.  It  is  essential  for  you  to  practice  the  preliminary 
exercises  before  going  on  the  range,  until  you  have  ac- 
quired perfection  in  these  first  principles.  Time  is  too 
precious  on  the  target  range  for  giving  this  instruction 
there.  It  is  absurd  to  see  a  soldier  experimenting  with 
different  positions  and  attitudes  at  the  firing  point,  try- 
ing to  find  the  one  best  suited  to  his  own  peculiarities. 
He  should  not  be  allowed  to  waste  valuable  time  and 
ammunition  in  shooting,  but  be  sent  back  for  preliminary 
instruction. 

11.  At  the  very  least  each  man  should  have  absolutely 
determined  for  himself  every  detail  of  each  of  the  firing 
positions,  so  that  he  will  drop  naturally  into  the  particular 
position  that  gives  him  the  best  control  over  his  rifle 
and  his  muscles  in  each  of  the  prescribed  positions.  You 
cannot  fire  a  consistent  score  if  your  position  is  unnatural 
and  strained.  And  you  will  certainly  upset  your  score  if 
you  change  your  position  and  hold  while  delivering  the 
fire.  With  exactly  the  same  aim,  you  will  change  the  posi- 
tion of  the  hit  by  changing  in  any  way  the  position  of  your 
hands  that  are  supporting  the  rifle,  or  the  amount  of  pres- 
sure you  are  putting  on  the  gun  sling,  or  the  degree  of 
pressure  with  which  you  are  holding  it  against  your 
shoulder,  or  the  position  of  the  butt  in  contact  with  your 
shoulder.  While  the  prescribed  positions  must  be  ex- 
ecuted uniformly  as  described  when  at  drill,  on  the  target 
range  each  individual  is  expected  to  adapt  them  to  his  own 
peculiarities  in  accordance  with  what  he  has  found  by 
experimenting  to  be  most  advantageous. 

12.  In  practicing  aiming'  observe  the  following:  (a) 
Always  have  a  small  clearly  defined  point  of  aim.  (b) 
It  is  important  to  learn  to  bring  the  line  of  sights  up  to- 
ward the  right  eye  by  raising  the  right  shoulder  and  carry- 
ing it  forward  rather  than  to  bring  the  eye  all  the  way 
down  to  the  line  of  sights  by  inclining  the  head,     (c)  It 

16 


242  SMALL  ARMS  FIRING 

is  particularly  important  that  you  acquire  the  fixed  habit 
of  keeping  your  eye  focused  on  the  target  throughout  the 
time  that  you  are  aiming,  and  never  allow  yourself  actu- 
ally to  look  at  the  front  sight,  which,  causes  blurring.  You 
will  see  the  front  sight  clearly  enough  when  you  bring  it 
up  close  to  the  point  of  aim.  (d)  A  great  fault  with  in- 
experienced shots  is  their  failure  to  lower  the  rifle  for  an- 
other trial  the  instant  they  feel  the  strain  of  holding  their 
breath  longer.  Instead  of  quitting,  they  set  their  teeth, 
hang  on  to  the  aim,  trembling  more  and  more,  and  finally 
fire  with  the  sort  of  feeling  that  that's  the  best  they  can  do 
anyhow.  A  good  shot  will  lower  his  rifle  and  take  a  few 
natural  breaths  and  then  try  again,  repeating  this  until 
he  can  fire  with  the  rifle  held  comfortably  and  steadily. 
13.  The  first  consideration  in  trigger  squeeze  is  the 
position  of  right  hand  and  forefinger.  The  hand  must 
take  hold  of  the  small  of  the  stock  with  all  of  the  gripping 
surface  of  the  hand  so  thoroughly  in  contact  with  the 
stock  that  the  act  of  squeezing  your  whole  hand  hard  as  in 
making  a  fist  cannot  cause  any  movement  to  the  gun. 
Equally  important  is  the  position  of  the  forefinger.  The 
trigger  must  be  pressed  by  the  second  joint,  which  is 
steady,  strong,  and  exactly  in  the  direction  of  the  pull, 
and  never  by  the  first  joint  which  is  weaker,  unsteady  and 
oblique  to  the  direction  of  the  pull.  Each  man  must  be  so 
familiar  with  his  own  rifle  that  he  can  not  only  take  up 
the  drag  fearlessly  before  he  holds  his  breath  and  settles 
into  the  last  position  of  aim,  but  so  that  he  can  take  up 
much  of  the  creep  as  he  brings  the  line  of  sight  accurately 
to  the  bull's-eye.  With  an  ability  to  do  this  he  first  per- 
fects his  position  with  an  approximate  aim ;  then  he  takes 
up  the  drag,  takes  his  breath,  fixes  his  eye  on  the  target, 
and  as  he  takes  up  the  creep  and  makes  an  effort  to  bring 
the  line  of  sight  into  exact  position  he  concentrates,  all  his 
attention  fixed  on  the  target,  and  increasing  the  effort  to 
hold  the  line  of  sight  exactly  in  place  increases  "in  doing  so 
the  muscular  strain  of  his  grip,  particularly  with  the  right 
hand,  and  this  increasing  grip  results  in  discharging  the 


LEARNIN'G  TO  SHOOT  243 

piece.    It  is  impossible  to  make  a  poor  hit  in  this  method 
of  firing. 

14.  It  is  absolutely  essential,  in  order  to  make  such 
corrections  of  the  rear  sight  as  to  bring  you  in  the  bull's- 
eye,  that  you  shall  have  acquired  the  invariable  habit  of 
knowing  exactly  where  your  line  of  sight  hit  the  target  at 
the  instant  the  piece  was  discharged.  This  is  known  as 
"  calling  your  shot,"  and  you  should  do  it  honestly  for 
your  own  benefit  in  all  aiming  exercises.  Then  later,  on 
the  range,  if  your  hit  is  too  low,  you  will  know  whether  it 
was  the  fault  of  your  hold  at  the  instant  of  firing,  or  the 
fault  of  the  amount  of  rear  sight  elevation.  It  is  pathetic 
to  see  a  man  constantly  re-adjusting  his  rear  sight,  trying 
to  correct  faults  in  holding.  It  is  beautiful  to  see  a  man 
sure  of  his  hold,  skillfully  readjusting  his  rear  sight  and 
bringing  his  hits  accurately  into  the  bull's-eye.  And  it  is  all 
a  matter  of  being  absolutely  sure  of  the  point  of  aim  at  the 
instant  of  discharge.  To  acquire  this,  as  well  as  to  insure 
absolute  immovability  of  the  piece  as  you  discharge  it,  you 
must  hold  it  immovable  after  snapping  the  trigger  in  prac- 
tice, continuing  your  hold  and  keeping  the  line  of  sight  on 
the  bull's-eye.  See  if  you  derange  it  ever  so  slightly  in 
letting  the  striker  down. 

15.  In  the  i-apid  fire  exercises,  of  course,  you  will  find 
it  easier  to  lower  the  piece  from  the  shoulder  each  time, 
to  re-load.  That  is,  it  is  easier  to  do  this  than  to  take  your- 
self in  hand  and  learn  to  load  easily  and  surely,  retaining 
the  piece  at  the  shoulder.  But  by  so  doing  you  are  not 
only  handicapping  yourself  in  losing  time,  but  you  are 
sacrificing  accuracy  by  introducing  changes  in  your  hold 
and  in  the  support  of  the  rifle.  A  little  thorough  practiqe 
will  make  it  easy  for  you  to  retain  the  piece  at  the  shoulder, 
a  great  advantage.  You  can  then  give  plenty  of  time  to 
accurate  aiming. 

16.  Without  ammunition  your  bolt  works  easily,  and 
it  is  immaterial  whether  it  be  brought  the  entire  distance  to 
the  rear  and  shoved  completely  home,  so  you  are  likely  to 
acquire  habits  of  carelessness  that  will  result  in  miss-fires 


244  SMALL  ARMS  FIRING 

on  the  range.  Therefore,  in  practice  take  a  firm  grip  of 
the  bolt  handle  in  the  crook  of  the  forefinger  held  there  by 
the  thumb.  Bring  it  back  with  a  smash  and  shove  it  for- 
ward and  down  home  as  though  trying  to  break  it.  You 
will  need  to  put  this  strength  in  it  when  using  ammunition, 
and  practice  will  have  given  you  the  habit  of  doing  it  easily 
and  surely. 

17.  In  firing  kneeling,  do  not  let  the  point  of  your 
elbow  rest  on  your  knee,  an  unstable  support.  Put  it  over 
in  front  of  your  knee  with  the  back  of  the  elbow  sup- 
ported on  the  knee  in  the  steadiest  position  you  can  find. 
Practice  this  position  until  you  can  drop  into  it  instantly 
and  accurately  without  having  to  shift  anything. 

18.  The  prone  position  is  easiest,  givii;g  greatest 
steadiness  to  the  piece.  Beginners  should  have  their  first 
experience  in  actual  firing  from  this  position.  Here  they 
may  be  sure  of  their  hold  and  acquire  confidence  in  them- 
selves and  their  rifles  before  attempting  the  more  difficult 
positions  of  kneeling  and  standing.  The  left  elbow  is  on 
the  ground,  directly  under  the  rifle,  and  the  rifle  itself  must 
not  be  supported  by  the  muscles  and  flesh  of  the  left  hand, 
which  introduce  trembling,  but  should  rest  in  the  palm  of 
the  hand  directly  on  the  upper  end  of  the  bony  column 
of  the  forearm.  This  gives  it  as  solid  a  support  as  though 
you  were  resting  it  on  a  log.  You  lose  all  the  benefit  of 
this  the  instant  you  raise  the  barrel  oflf  this  bone  by  closing 
the  left  hand  and  taking  the  barrel  into  its  grip.  You  see 
this  requires  you  to  make  changes  of  elevation  by  moving 
the  butt  of  the  rifle  with  your  right  shoulder,  just  as  you 
would  have  to  do  if  aiming  over  a  log.  As  you  settle  into 
position  of  approximate  aim  you  adjust  the  matter  of 
elevation  of  the  front  sight  by  proper  movements  of  your 
body.  Having  once  gotten  this  correct  you  will  not  change 
it  while  firing  your  score.  You  will  find  it  most  helpful 
to  make  a  slight  hollow  in  the  ground  for  your  left  elbow, 
and  to  keep  it  there  during  the  string. 

19.  While  the  use  of  the  sling  may  be  awkward  to  you 
at  first,  you  will  be  well  repaid  for  practicing  with  it  until 


LEARNING  TO  SHOOT  245 

you  use  it  easily.  It  will  then  be  most  helpful.  Do  not  be 
afraid  of  breaking  it ;  particularly  in  the  prone  position 
you  put  a  large  proportion  of  your  weight  on  it.  An  im- 
portant thing  is  to  put  the  same  amount  of  weight  on 
the  sling  in  each  shot. 

20.  The  great  advantage  of  gallery  practice  is  that, 
there  being  no  recoil  to  induce  nervousness  or  flinching,  it 
affords  the  soldier  an  opportunity  to  get  perfect  co- 
ordination between  holding  his  breath,  perfecting  his  aim, 
and  discharging  his  piece.  And  this  is  what  he  should  be 
striving  for  each  time  he  fires  a  shot.  In  fact,  this  co- 
ordination is  the  one  real  secret  of  good  shooting.  Any- 
one can  point  a  gun  quite  accurately.  Few  can  be  sure  it 
was  still  pointed  accurately  at  the  instant  of  discharge. 

21.  In  each  rifle  the  graduations  for  the  rear  sight  are 
correct  only  for  the  particular  conditions  that  existed 
when  they  were  determined  by  experiment  at  the  factory. 
Therefore,  each  soldier  should  determine  the  zero  of  his 
rifle.  Thus,  to  fire  at  any  given  range,  as  500  yards,  he 
may  find  it  necessary  normally  to  take  an  elevation  so 
much  greater  or  so  much  less,  say  25  yards,  than  the  500 
graduation  mark.  In  the  same  way  his  windage  zero  may 
be  a  little  to  the  right  or  left.  He  determines  these  for 
himself  by  careful  obsen^ation  of  his  hits  and  sights  while 
firing  on  the  range. 

22.  There  are  many  rules  and  explanations  given  for 
making  corrections  of  the  rear  sight  to  meet  atmospheric 
changes  of  wind,  light,  etc.  The  simplest  rule,  that  cannot 
lead  to  confusion,  is  "  move  your  rear  sight  the  way  you 
want  your  bullet  to  go."  Learn  this,  and  do  not  try  to 
learn  any  other.  If  you  forget  this  rule,  and  men  have 
done  it  in  the  excitement  of  record  practice,  you  will  re- 
call it  by  remembering  what  everyone  always  knows,  that 
you  raise  your  elevation  to  make  your  bullet  go  higher. 

23.  A  man  who  is  confident  of  his  hold,  and  who 
understands  an  intelligent  use  of  his  rear  sight  correc- 
tions, will  always  maintain  exactly  the  same  point  of  aim, 
and  find  his  target  by  changes  in  the  rear  sight.    The  man 


246  SMALL  ARMS  FIRING 

who  finds  his  target  by  shifting  his  aim  to  different  points 
in  the  landscape  has  not  really  got  anywhere  if  he  does  hit 
the  target. 

24.  Experience  will  be  your  best  teacher  in  learning  to 
estimate  the  effect  that  various  winds  will  have  on  your 
bullet.  A  transverse  wind  is  going  to  carry  your  bullet 
more  or  less  in  the  direction  of  the  wind ;  therefore,  to 
correct  it  you  want  the  bullet  to  go  more  in  the  direction 
against  the  wind.  Applying  the  above  rule,  move  your 
rear  sight  in  that  direction.  If  the  wind  be  with  the  bullet 
it  will  increase  slightly  the  height  of  the  hit.  If  the  wind 
be  against  the  bullet  it  will  decrease  the  height.  You  cor- 
rect for  this  by  changing  rear  sight  elevations. 

25.  Estimating  Distances. — For  actual  work  in  the 
field  this  is  quite  as  important  as  ability  to  shoot.  Particu- 
larly at  the  long  ranges,  it  is  true  that  the  more  accurately 
you  shoot  the  surer  you  are  to  miss  if  your  range  has  been 
incorrectly  estimated.  It  is  an  application  of  this  truth 
that  underlies  the  statement  that  a  company  of  but  moder- 
ately good  shots  will  get  more  hits  on  the  battlefield  than 
will  a  company  of  experts.  Few  commanders,  however, 
have  shown  such  faith  in  theory  as  to  prefer  the  poorer 
shots.  They  prefer  rather  to  trust  to  a  fairly  accurate 
estimation  of  the  range.  If  you  have  ever  fired  at  1000 
yards  range  you  will  appreciate  what  a  difference  of  25 
yards  in  your  elevation  will  make  in  the  position  of  your 
hit.  A  difference  of  50  yards  is  hopeless.  You  will  ap- 
preciate now  the  real  necessity  of  being  able  to  estimate 
ranges  with  fair  accuracy.  The  splendid  shooting  quali- 
ties of  our  rifles  result  in  the  bullet  going  just  where  it  was 
directed,  and  put  it  up  to  the  soldier  to  direct  it  correctly. 
This  means  that  he  must  have  the  correct  elevation.  This 
means  in  the  field  that  somebody  has  got  to  guess  the  cor- 
rect elevation,  that  is,  guess  the  correct  distance  to  the  ob- 
ject fired  at.  Every  man  should  have  facility  in  this,  and 
may  acquire  it  by  practice  whenever  he  is  out  in  the  coun- 
try.   You  should  be  familiar  with  the  following  principles : 


ESTIMATING  DISTANCES  247 

Objects  seem  nearer: 

(a)  When  the  object  is  in  a  bright  light. 

(b)  When  the  color  of  the  object  contrasts  sharply 
with  the  color  of  the  background. 

(c)  When  looking  over  water,  snow,  or  a  uniform 
surface  like  a  wheat  field. 

(d)  When  looking  from  a  height  downward. 

(e)  In  the  clear  atmosphere  of  high  altitudes. 
Objects  seem  more  distant : 

(a)  When  looking  over  a  depression  in  the  ground. 

(b)  When  there  is  a  poor  light  or  fog. 

(c)  When  only  part  of  the  object  can  be  seen. 

(d)  When  looking  from  low  ground  upward  toward 
higher  ground. 

•26.  The  following  methods  of  estimating  long  dis- 
tances are  useful : 

(a)  You  may  decide  that  the  object  cannot  be  more 
than  a  certain  distance  away  nor  less  than  a  certain  dis- 
tance ;  take  the  mean  of  the  two  as  the  range. 

(b)  Select  a  point  which  you  consider  half  the  whole 
distance.  Estimate  this  and  douWe  it ;  or  divide  the  dis- 
tance into  a  certain  number  of  lengths  which  are  familiar 
to  you. 

(c)  Estimate  the  distance  along  a  parallel  line,  as  a 
road  on  one  side,  having  on  it  well-defined  objects. 

(d)  Take  the  mean  of  several  estimates  made  by  dif- 
ferent persons. 

27.  Every  man  should  have,  a  well-defined  mental  pic- 
ture of  a  unit  of  measure,  50  yards,  100  yards,  200  yards, 
whatever  it  may  be ;  something  that  he  has  well  fixed  in  his 
own  mind.  After  each  experience  on  the  target  range  you 
will  have  a  pretty  good  conception  of  how  objects  look  at 
200,  300,  500  and  600  yards  distances.  Acquire  facility  in 
estimating  from  a  prone  position  as  well  as  standing,  be- 
cause in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  you  will  have  most 
practice  in  estimating  from  the  prone. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MAP  READING  AND  SKETCHING 

1.  This  chapter  is  designed  for  self-instruction  in 
what  is  such  a  bug-bear  to  most  military  students,  and  yet 
is  so  simple  that  I  have  seen  school  children  learning  to 
read  their  fathers'  military  maps  as  a  diversion.  You  take 
it  up  some  evening  at  home,  instead  of  the  Sunday  supple- 
ment puzzle,  follow  the  directions  faithfully,  and  see  how 
soon  you  have  a  mastery  of  it.  In  order  ever  to  participate 
in  that  most  interesting  form  of  in-doors  instruction,  map 
maneuvers,  or  to  conduct  a  patrol  cleverly  in  an  out-door 
problem,  you  have  got  to  be  able  to  read  your  map  quickly 
and  accurately.  This  means  that  you  shall  have  acquired 
the  facility  to  look  at  a  contoured  map,  and  at  once  get  a 
mental  picture  of  the  topographical  features,  see  the  hills 
and  valleys  as  they  are.  You  may  gain  this  facility  only 
by  practice.  Picking  out  one  feature  at  a  time  is  no  more 
map  reading,  than  picking  out  one  note  at  a  time  is  read- 
ing music.  Each  organization  should  have  such  a  supply 
of  contoured  maps,  as  will  allow  one  for  the  personal  use 
of  each  member.  These  can  best  be  had  from  the  Book 
Department,  Army  Service  Schools,  Fort  Leavenworth. 
Kansas.  Send  for  their  price  list,  and  select  the  ones, 
you  want. 

2.  As  a  first  lesson  in  reading,  follow  the  different 
roads,  and  determine  whether  you  are  going  up  hill  or 
down  hill,  just  where  the  grades  change,  and  whether  the 
hills  are  steep  or  not ;  leave  the  roads  and  consider  sec- 
tions of  country,  pick  out  the  valleys  and  the  hills,  deter- 
mining whether  the  slopes  are  convex  or  concave ;  give 
yourself  many  problems  in  visibility  until  you  can  make  a 
quick  estimate  that  is  fairly  accurate  in  any  given  case. 
You  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  soon  these  contours  will 
make  actual  pictures  to  your  eye  of  hills  and  valleys. 

3.  First  to  understand  "  contours,"  and  then  actually 
248 


CONTOURS  249 

to  see  the  ground  forms  they  represent,  will  require  you 
to  use  a  little  imagination.  Like  the  lines  that  represent 
roads,  rivers,  etc.,  the  contours  are  representations  on  the 
map  of  actual  lines  on  the  earth's  surface,  only  the  con- 
tour lines  are  not  visible  as  the  roads  are.  The  easiest  way 
for  you  to  imagine  them  on  the  earth's  surface  is  to  think 
of  them  as  shore  lines  in  case  the  land  were  covered  with 
water  up  to  a  certain  elevation.  For  example,  consider 
any  given  area,  and  that  it  is  inundated  so  that  the  top  of 
the  highest  hill  just  shows  as  a  small  island  less  than  ten 
feet  high.  This  shore  line  will  be  the  highest  contour  line 
in  this  section.  Assuming  that  the  contour  interval  is  ten 
feet,  let  the  water  fall  ten  feet  and  we  have  a  new  shore 
line,  the  next  lower  contour  line.  Other  hill  tops  may  now 
have  appeared  above  the  surface,  and  their  shore  lines  will 
make  other  complete  or  joined  contour  lines.  Assume  that 
all  the  shore  lines  are  actually  marked  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  say  by  plowing  a  furrow  at  the  water's  edge. 
Continuing  this  process,  the  water  receding  to  ten  feet  less 
of  depth  each  time,  and  at  each  ten  foot  level  the  shore 
lines  marking  the  next  lower  contour  lines,  in  time  all  of 
the  ground  in  the  section  considered  will  be  exposed  and 
its  entire  surface  will  be  marked  by  these  furrows,  or 
shore  lines,  which  will  show  accurately  ten  feet  differ- 
ences in  elevation  throughout  the  section.  The  section 
may  now  be  mapped,  and  these  shore  linesbe  represented 
as  other  features  are,  and  they  become  the  contours  of  a 
military  map  which  pictures  the  ground  forms  to  the 
trained  eye. 

4.  To  help  to  understand  the  land  forms  represented, 
think  how  the  distances  between  the  shore  lines  would  be 
affected  by  the  slope  of  the  ground  under  the  water  as  it 
receded.  For  example,  standing  at  any  given  shore  line, 
if  the  bottom  shelved  ofif  very  gradually  as  the  water  fell 
ten  feet  you  would  find  it  a  considerable  distance  to  the 
next  shore  line;  if  the  bottom  shelved  off  abruptly,  it 
would  be  a  very  short  distance  to  the  next  shore  line;  if 
your  shore  were  part  of  a  precipice,  the  next  shore  line 


250  MAP  READING  AND  SKETCHING 

would  be  directly  beneath  you,  and  the  two  corresponding 
contours  on  tha  map  would  be  coincident.  Therefore,  the 
nearer  the  contours  are  together  on  the  map  the  more 
abrupt  slope. 

5.  These  contours  are  numbered  on  the  map  to  show 
their  elevation  above  sea  level.  You  are  moving  on  a 
dead  level  when  you  move  along  one  of  these  lines.  You 
are  changing  grade  up  or  down  when  you  move  in  any  di- 
rection across  these  lines,  and  you  can  tell  whether  up  or 
down  by  reference  to  their  numbers.  In  determining 
land  forms,  if  you  are  moving  up  grade  and  the  contours 
bulge  towards  you  they  represent  a  hill,  if  they  bulge  away 
from  you  they  represent  a  valley;  again,  the  contours 
change  direction  in  abrupt  points  at  the  bottom  of  valleys, 
that  is,  where  they  cross  the  actual  watercourse ;  they 
change  direction  around  the  fronts  of  the  hills  in  softer 
curves  so,  generally  speaking,  changes  of  direction  in 
points  represent  watercourses  and,  and  in  round  curves, 
hill  slopes.  Small  closed  contours  generally  represent  hill- 
tops, though  they  may  rarely  be  depressions.  Learn  to 
glance  at  the  nearest  watercourses,  and  common  sense  will 
generally  tell  you  whether  you  are  going  up  hill  or  not. 
Water  always  runs  down  hill,  and  away  from  a  water- 
course in  any  direction  except  down  stream  is  sure  to  be 
uphill.  It  will  help  you  to  read  contours  if,  as  you  ride  in 
the  country,  ydu  will  observe  the  land  forms  about  you, 
and  imagine  where  the  shore  lines  would  lie  if  marked,  and 
how  they  would  look  on  a  map.  Take  the  simplest  land 
form  first,  a  round  detached  hill.  When  you  can  imagine 
that  represented  on  a  map,  take  an  irregular  hill,  and  so 
work  up  until  you  can  see  how  the  lines  would  follow 
around  the  various  forms  of  a  complicated  terrain. 

6.  In  studying  a  map,  assuming  that  we  are  standing 
on  the  top  of  a  hill  and  looking  down  its  slope,  if  the 
contours  of  the  hill  grow  further  and  further  apart  as 
we  approach  the  bottom,  its  surface  grows  gradually  less 
abrupt,  is  dished  or  concaved,  and  we  can  see  the  whole 
slope.     If,  on  the  contrary,  the  contours  are  nearer  to- 


I 


VISIBILITY  ^51 

gather  as  we  approach  the  bottom,  the  slope  grows  more 
abrupt,  is  convex,  and  we  will  not  be  able  to  see  the 
whole  surface. 

7.  In  order  to  use  your  map  as  a  patrol  leader  in 
selecting  a  route  that  cannot  be  observed  from  a  given 
point,  where  you  may  assume  the  enemy  to  be,  you  must 
be  able  to  determine  the  question  of  visibility.  This 
is  an  interesting  problem  to  which  you  should  give  much 
practice.  At  first  consider  the  earth's  surface  devoid  of 
obstructions,  such  as  buildings,  trees,  etc.  Take  two 
selected  points  on  the  map,  connect  them  by  a  straight 
line,  and  if  the  contours  which  this  line  crosses  show 
that  there  is  no  hill  or  ridge  between  the  two  points  that 
is  higher  than  the  lower  of  them,  then  each  is  visible 
from  the  other. 

8.  It  is  when  ground  rises  between  the  two  points 
that  is  higher  than  the  lower  point  that  you  have  to  solve 
the  question  of  visibility.  This  is  done  with  mathemati- 
cal accuracy  by  determining  graphically  the  points  in 
question  on  a  cross  section  of  the  map.  For  example, 
the  question  is  the  mutual  visibility  of  any  two  given 
points  A  and  B  on  any  contoured  map.  Assume  that  A 
has  elevation  600,  B  has  elevation  540 ;  that  the  straight 
line  joining  A  and  B  on  the  map  is  nine  inches  long,  and 
crosses  certain  contours  that  show  a  ridge  560  feet  high 
lying  between  A  and  B ;  its  highest  point  C,  on  the  line 
A-B,  being  distant  two  inches  from  B. 

9.  To  determine  visibility  along  this  line  of  sight  A-B 
by  the  graphical  method,  you  will  construct  a  profile  of 
the  ground  surface  along  this  line.  Lay  off  on  a  sheet 
of  paper  the  same  length  right  line  A'-B',  B'  at  one  ex- 
tremity, A'  at  the  other.  (Actually  do  this  and  you  will 
understand  it.)  At  A'  erect  a  perpendicular  to  a  con- 
venient height  to  represent  the  60  feet  difference  in 
elevation  between  A  and  B.  A"  is  the  upper  end  of  this 
perpendicular.  Using  ruled  paper,  for  convenience  this 
perpendicular  would  equal  six  ruled  spaces,  each  repre- 
senting 10  feet.     (There  is  no  connection  between  the 


252  MAP  READING  AND  SKETCHING 

scale  used  for  the  horizontal  distances  along  the  line  A-B 
and  the  scale  used  for  the  perpendiculars  representing 
elevations  of  points  on  this  line.)  Now  connect  A"  and 
B'  by  a  right  line,  which  will  represent  the  actual  line  of 
vision  between  A  and  B.  To  locate  C  on  the  profile,  from 
the  end  of  the  line  at  B'  take  a  distance  B'-C  equal  to 
B-C  on  the  map,  and  at  C  erect  a  perpendicular,  and  take 
a  point  thereon  at  C  equal  to  20  feet  of  the  scale  you 
adopted  for  the  60  feet  perpendicular  at  A'.  If  this 
point  C"  is  above  the  line  of  vision,  C  will  obstruct  the 
view,  if  below  it  will  not.  So  for  any  point  along  the  line 
A-B  on  the  map,  its  altitude  above  B  may  be  laid  oflf  on  a 
perpendicular  erected  at  its  distance  from  B,  and  the 
question  of  visibility  determined  by  reference  to  the 
line  of  sight  A"-B'. 

10.  But  in  practice  you  will  not  need  such  accuracy, 
and  a  far  better  method  is  a  quick  estimate  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  height  of  the  intervening  object  to  its  distance 
from  the  points  in  question.  You  can  make  this  esti- 
mate so  nearly  accurate  that  the  irregularities  and  natural 
obstructions,  like  grass,  fences,  crops  and  bushes  will  be 
the  real  determining  factor.  For  example,  in  the  above 
case,  A  is  60  feet  higher  than  B.  An  object  30  feet  higher 
than  B  would  just  graze  the  line  of  vision  if  half  way  be- 
tween A  and  B.  It  would  obstruct  the  view  if  nearer  to 
B,  and  would  be  beneath  the  line  of  vision  if  nearer  to  A. 
Take  the  above  ridge  at  C.  It  is  20  feet  higher  than  B. 
It  would,  therefore,  just  graze  the  line  of  vision  at  20/60 
or  one-third  the  distance  from  B  to  A;  or  at  three  inches 
from  B  on  the  map.  It  is  but  two  inches,  therefore  less 
than  one-third  the  distance  from  B,  and  it  obstructs  the 
view.  Work  out  a  few  problems  like  this  of  your  own 
devising  on  the  map,  and  you  will  soon  find  you  have  such 
facility  that  in  most  cases  you  will  not  even  need  to  meas- 
ure distances.  But  you  have  got  to  actually  do  these 
things.    It  is  not  enough  simply  to  read  about  them. 

11.  Your  general  use  of  a  map  for  practical  out-door 
work  will  be  to  guide  you  through  country  that  is  un- 


FINDING  YOURSELF  ON  THE  MAP        253 

known  to  you.  Inhabitants  may  be  hostile,  so  you  cannot 
ask  directions.  You  will  have  to  depend  wholly  on  the 
map.  To  do  this  you  will  find  when  you  try  it  you  have 
got  to  know  all  the  time  where  you  are  on  the  map.  So 
to  keep  from  losing  yourself  on  the  map  you  must  refer 
to  it  constantly  and  keep  checking  up  your  positions. 
You  are  cautioned,  however,  not  to  be  upset  if  you  find 
inaccuracies  and  ommissions. 

12.  The  question  is  to  find  your  position  on  the  map 
in  case  you  have  lost  it.  You  can  do  this  at  any  slightly 
elevated  point  like  a  hilltop  with  distant  views  to  objects 
that  may  be  recognized  on  the  map.  First  of  all  hold 
your  map  flat  and  oriented — ^that  is,  with  the  arrow  of 
the  map  pointing  to  what  you  know  to  be  the  north.  Now 
begin  trying  to  locate  prominent  objects  in  the  land- 
scape that  you  may  possibly  recognize  on  the  map.  Let 
us  say  you  see  a  distant  village  lying  perhaps  two  or  three 
miles  to  the  southeast.  There  may  be  a  half  dozen  villages 
on  the  map,  any  one  of  which  may  be  this.  You  see  an 
unusually  big  hill,  perhaps  four  or  five  miles  due  south- 
west. This  will  help  determine  which  village.  With 
your  glasses  you  pick  up  a  bridge  crossing  a  good  sized 
stream,  perhaps  two  miles  away  due  south.  And  so  on, 
each  of  these  objects  helps  determine  the  others,  until 
in  time  you  ought  to  be  sure  of  having  located  on  the 
map  two  of  the- objects  you  see  in  the  landscape.  This 
will  locate  your  position  on  the  map  closely  enough,  for 
you  are  at  the  intersection  of  the  two  lines  of  sight  to 
these  two  objects. 

13.  If  you  need  to  make  sure  of  your  exact  position 
on  the  map,  you  may  now  find  it  by  holding  the  map  flat 
and  oriented,  then  lay  a  "  straight  edge  "  on  the  map, 
pivoted  on  a  pin  stuck  in  the  map  at  one  of  the  points  you 
have  recognized,  und,  standing  behind  the  map,  sight  the 
straight  edge  at  this  object  in  the  landscape.  Your  posi- 
tion is  somewhere  along  the  line  of  this  straight  edge. 
Draw  the  line  on  the  map  with  a  pencil.  Transfer  the 
pin  to  the  second  point  you  have  recognized  and  located. 


254  MAP  READING  AND  SKETCHING 

Sight  the  straight  edge,  pivoted  on  this  pin,  on  the  second 
object,  and  its  intersection  with  the  first  line  is  your' exact 
location.     Now  don't  get  lost  again. 

14.  To  determine  the  north  without  a  compass,  hold 
your  watch  horizontal,  pointing  the  hour  hand  directly 
toward  the  sun.  You  may  determine  this  by  seeing  that 
the  shadow  of  the  hour  hand  is  exactly  under  the  hand. 
The  watch  in  this  position,  the  line  that  bisects  the  angle 
between  the  hour  hand  and  XII  o'clock  is  the  north  and 
south  line,  south  being  toward  the  sun. 

15.  The  true  north  on  a  map  is  indicated  by  a  full 
pointed  arrow,  the  magnetic  north  (where  your  needle 
points)  by  a  half-head  arrow.  Or  the  first  by  a  long  ar- 
row, and  the  latter  by  a  shorter  one.  To  orient  your  map 
hold  it  flat  and  horizontal  and  turned  in  such  a  direction 
that  this  arrow  showing  the  magnetic  north  is  parallel  to, 
and  pointing  in  the  same  direction  as,  your  compass  needle 
pointing  north, 

16.  Every  map  also  has  its  scale,  which  you  consult  to 
determine  distances.  This  may  be  expressed  in  words,  as 
"  one  inch  to  the  mile  " ;  or,  graphically,  where  a  right 
line  is  drawn  and  divided  into  equal  parts,  each  division 
representing  so  much  distance,  stated  in  connection  with 
the  scale ;  or  the  scale  may  be  represented  in  the  form  of  a 
fraction  (called  R.  F.),  in  which  case  the  denominator 
states  the  number  of  lineal  units  on  the  ground  that  are 
represented  by  one  unit  on  the  map ;  for  example,  R.  F. 
1/63360  means  that  63360  inches,  feet,  yards,  or  meters 
on  the  earth's  surface  are  represented  on  the  map  by 
one  inch,  foot,  yard  or  meter  as  you  choose.  To  under- 
stand the  conventional  signs  used  for  representing  the 
various  objects  on  the  ground,  go  to  your  Field  Service 
Regulations,  "  Appendix  4."  These  signs  are  so  reason- 
able that  you  will  quickly  learn  to  use  them  intelligently. 

17.  Sketching. — The  chances  are  very  slight  that  you 
will  ever  be  called  upon  to  make  any  accurate  military 
maps.  When  the  time  comes  that  these  maps  must  be 
made,  men  who  have  had  training  will  probably  be  de- 


1' ' 


SKETCHING  255 

tailed  to  make  them.  To  acquire  facility  in  map  making 
requires  time  for  practice  that  you  can  ill  afford  to  give. 
What  you  must  have,  beyond  the  ability  to  read  a  map, 
is  an  ability  to  make  such  a  sketch  of  any  route  you  may 
take,  that  it  v^^ould  serve  as  a  guide  for  another.  That  is 
fundamental.  Any  ability  you  may  acquire  in  addition, 
which  enables  you  to  add  military  information  to  this 
route  sketch  will  increase  your  value  as  a  patrol  leader 
by  just  so  much. 

1 8.  Text-books  on  the  subject  of  sketching  are  too 
formidable  with  their  pages  of  mathematics  for  the  con- 
struction of  various  scales,  and  descriptions  of  instru- 
ments provided  for  determining  slopes,  elevations,  dis- 
tances, etc.  It  is  the  general  case  that  when  a  soldier  has 
had  occasion  to  make  a  route  sketch,  none  of  these  instru- 
ments were  at  hand,  generally  not  even  a  sketching  case ; 
and  good  enough  sketches  have  been  made  without  their 
use.  In  any  event  it  is  enough  for  you  to  know  how  to  take 
any  piece  of  paper,  and,  as  you  follow  your  route,  make 
a  sketch  of  it  that  will  serve  as  a  sure  guide  to  another. 

19.  As  to  the  scale,  if  you  are  riding  on  horseback, 
and  your  horse  walks  about  four  miles  an  hour,  and 
trots  at  about  eight  miles  an  hour,  there  is  your  method 
of  determining  distance.  When  he  has  walked  seven  and 
one-half  minutes  by  your  watch,  or  trotted  three  and 
three-quarters  minutes,  he  has  covered  a  half  mile;  if 
you  are  on  foot,  and  walk  at  the  uniform  rate  of  three 
miles  an  hour,  each  twenty  minutes  of  walking  means  a 
mile  of  distance  covered,  and  so  on.  Thus,  by  taking 
time  from  halt  to  halt,  you  learn  the  distances  between 
them.  Now  to  put  these  distances  on  the  map —  if  you 
accept. the  convenient  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile,  your 
half  mile  distance  on  the  road  becomes  a  half  inch  of 
distance  on  the  map,  and  so  on.  This  scale  will  be  as 
accurate  as  the  rest  of  your  map,  and  its  irregularities  are 
as  likely  as  not  to  fit  in  with  other  inaccuracies  and  make 
a  reasonably  accurate  result.  Anyone  can  certainly 
understand  the  use  of  this  scale. 


256  MAP  READING  AND  SKETCHING 

20.  Now  to  make  the  sketch.  To  put  on  paper  a 
reasonably  true  representation  of  the  road,  showing  its 
directions  and  distances.  The  first  thing  is  to  have  your 
paper  smooth  and  flat.  If  it  is  not  part  of  a  firm  pad  or 
book,  fasten  it  to  a  smooth  board  or  other  flat  surface. 
Your  tools  will  be  a  pencil,  a  graduated  ruler  or  other 
"  straight  edge"  (the  carefully  folded  edge  of  a  piece  of 
paper  does  very  well),  a  compass  whose  north  and  south 
line  is  so  marked  that  you  can  readily  place  the  compass 
on  your  paper  with  this  line  parallel  to  your  arrow,  a 
watch  for  determining  distances,  and  an  eraser  for  cor- 
recting mistakes. 

21.  Now  go  to  the  point  whence  your  route  sketch 
is  to  begin.  Face  in  the  direction  of  the  road  you  are  to 
take,  mark  with  your  pencil  at  the  bottom  of  the  sheet  a 
point  which  shall  represent  the  beginning  of  the  road. 
You  usually  know  the  general  direction  of  your  route. 
If  it  is  going  to  bear  to  the  left  start  from  a  point  nearer 
the  lower  right  hand  corner;  if  it  is  going  to  bear  to  the 
right  start  from  a  point  nearer  the  lower  left  hand  cor- 
ner. Your  next  step  is  to  draw  a  distinct  line  on  the 
paper,  out  of  the  way  of  your  sketch,  representing  the 
north  and  south  line  of  the  sketch.  To  do  this,  hold  the 
paper  flat  and  horizontal  in  front  of  you,  as  you  face  the 
general  direction  of  your  route,  so  that  the  route  may  be 
laid  out  upon  it  to  the  best  advantage.  Place  your  com- 
pass on  the  map,  near  where  you  want  to  place  the  ar- 
row, turning  the  compass  box,  not  the  map,  until  the 
needle  reads  north ;  and  now  draw  the  arrow,  parallel  to 
the  needle,  or  approximately  so.  Now  place  the  compass 
box  so  its  north  and  south  line  is  exactly  on  your  arrow, 
both  pointing  north ;  revolve  the  sketch,  not  the  compass 
box,  until  needle  lies  exactly  in  the  N.  and  S.  line.  This  is 
orienting  your  sketch ;  it  must  be  held  thus  oriented  when- 
ever you  are  determining  directions  at  any  station. 

22.  The  next  step  is  to  draw  the  line  representing  the 
first  section  of  your  road.  If  you  wish  to  be  quite  ac- 
curate in  your  directions,  stick  a  pin  in  the  paper  at  the 


SKETCHING  THE  FIRST  SECTION         257 

point  you  have  assumed  for  this  initial  station,  pivot  a 
straight  edge  against  it  and,  holding  your  paper  oriented 
as  above  described,  aim  the  straight  edge  in  the  direction 
of  your  road,  then  draw  a  line  lightly  from  the  pin  along 
the  straight  edge  in  that  direction  for  a  short  distance, 
remembering  that  a  half  inch  will  mean  half  a  mile  of 
road.  Now  enter  on  the  map  such  information  as  will 
exactly  identify  the  initial  station  of  your  route — so 
anyone  can  tell  where  your  route  started. 

23.  You  are  now  ready  to  mount  up  and  start  down 
the  road.  Assuming  that  the  road  is  straight,  or  prac- 
tically so  (you  can  make  no  note  of  slight  turns  that  do 
not  effect  the  general  direction  of  the  road),  let  us  say 
that  you  trot  uninterruptedly  for  three  and  three-quarters 
minutes,  and  have  passed  no  object  of  military  interest 
that  you  are  going  to  try  to  represent.  You  have  covered 
the  first  half  mile,  but  there  is  no  special  advantage  in 
halting  and  making  another  station  here.  Let  us  as- 
sume that  you  see  at  some  distance  ahead  a  cross-roads. 
Instead  of  halting  or  slowing  up  you  continue  ^he  uni- 
form trot  until  you  reach  the  cross-roads.  Halting  here 
you  observe  that  you  have  been  trotting  for  seven  minutes. 
You  have  traveled  just  a  little  short  of  a  mile  in  a  gen- 
erally direct  route,  therefore  you  are  at  a  point  on  the 
indefinite  light  line  you  drew  from  the  initial  station  a 
distance  of  a  little  less  than  an  inch  from  that  station. 
Move  your  pin  up  to  this  point,  draw  the  line  distinctly 
between  the  two  points,  now  orient  your  board  accurately 
with  the  compass  needle  as  before.  Let  us  assume  that 
your  road  here  changes  direction  a  few  degrees  to  the 
right.  You  may  now  sight  again  with  your  straight  edge 
along  the  new  direction,  and  represent  it  again  by  a  new 
light  line.  Draw  in  the  cross-roads,  terminating  the  lines 
at  short  distances  unless  you  can  see  positively  that  they 
go  to  some  point  in  sight  which  you  wish  to  represent 
on  the  map.  Information  as  to  where  these  roads  lead 
may  be  written  opposite  them  on  the  map.  Wherever  the 
route  makes  a  change  in  its  general  direction  you  must 
17 


258  MAP  READING  AND  SKETCHING 

make  a  station  to  determine  and  plot  oii  the  map  this  new 
direction. 

24.  In  riding  your  next  course  let  us  assume  that  you 
cross  a  stream  which  you  wish  to  represent,  and  pass  a 
forest  at  the  right  of  the  road.  As  you  trot  along  your 
course  you  are  alert  to  observe  the  country  on  both  sides, 
watching  every  object  that  should  be  renresented  on  the 
map.  You  will  locate  each  by  making  a  mental  note  of 
the  time  by  your  watch  at  which  you  were  directly  op- 
posite it.  For  example,  you  note  a  stream  appearing  at 
right  angles  to  the  road  on  the  right  hand  side  when  you 
have  trotted  one  minute,  it  turns  when  within  about  200 
yards  of  road  and  flows  parallel  to  it  and  at  the  end  of 
two  minutes  trotting  turns  toward  the  road,  crtosses 
it,  and  flows  directly  off  at  right  angles  to  the  road  on  the 
left  hand  side.  The  mental  notes  that  you  have  made  are 
the  time  it  appeared,  the  direction  from  which  it  appeared, 
its  direction  while  near  the  road,  the  time  at  which  it 
crossed  the  road,  the  direction  in  which  it  disappeared, 
the  direction  of  its  flow,  and  the  nature  of  the  road  cross- 
ing. If  you  find  difficulty  or  confusion  in  keeping  these 
in  your  n^ind,  it  is  very  easy,  even  when  trotting,  to  make 
sufficiently  lucid  notes  on  the  margin  of  your  paper  to 
enable  you  to  put  this  data  on  the  map  proper  at  your  next 
halt.  Continuing  your  trot,  at  the  end  of  three  minutes 
you  come  to  the  near  edge  of  the  forest  on  the  right  hand 
side  of  the  road,  and  trot  for  three-fourths  of  a  minute 
alongside  of  this  forest.  You  decide  to  halt  in  this  case 
at  the  end  of  your  half  mile  to  sketch  in  the  data  you  have 
gained.  Your  station,  of  course,  is  a  half  inch  along  the 
light  line  indicating  the  direction  from  your  second 
station.  One  minute's  trotting  is  practically  one-eighth 
of  a  mile,  of  course  a  shade  less.  This  will  locate  at  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  from  your  second  station  the  appear- 
ance of  the  stream  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  line.  If 
the  stream  was  250  yards  from  the  road  that  also  is  about 
an  eighth  of  a  mile,  so  you  will  show  it  at  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  to  the  right  of  the  line  of  your  road.    It  con- 


FORM  LINES  259 

tinues  there  for  about  an  eighth  of  a  mile,  one  minute, 
then  turns  to  the  left  and  crosses  the  road.  In  showing 
the  stream  crossing,  indicate  its  nature.  If  a  bridge,  how 
long  approximately,  of  what  material,  and  how  high  above 
water.  This  data  may  be  written  to  one  side.  Your 
forest  ended  exactly  at  this  third  station,  it  extended  for 
three-quarters  of  a  minute  trotting,  three-quarters  of  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  is  accurate  enough. 

25.  This  gives  you  an  idea  of  how  simple  it  may  be  to 
begin  the  practice  of  making  route  sketches.  You  can 
easily  work  in  this  fashion  as  fast  as  a  cavalry  column 
will  march.  If  mounted,  you  should  have  a  man  with 
you  to  hold  your  horse  at  each  halt,  otherwise  you  will 
have  to  tie  him,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  hold  him 
and  your  sketching  board  at  the  same  time,  especially 
in  fly  time.  One  of  the  most  important  things  in  a  route 
sketch  is  to  be  sure  to  indicate  every  possible  road  that 
branches  off  from  the  route  you  are  sketching,  to  pre- 
vent uncertainty  as  to  which  is  the  right  road  to  follow. 
You  will  soon  gain  facility  enough  to  enable  you  to 
indicate  houses  and  all  other  objects  of  military  interest. 
You  can  always  determine  directions  to  any  object  of 
interest  by  sighting  along  your  straight  edge  from  any 
one  of  your  stations  to  the  object.  If  you  wish  to  locate 
this  object  on  your  map,  draw  a  line  along  the  straight 
edge  as  you  sight  from  each  of  two  different  stations 
far  enough  apart  to  give  a  good  angle,  and  the  intersec- 
tion of  these  two  lines  will  give  its  location  on  the  map 
with  sufficient  accuracy.  These  lines  should  always  be 
light  and  should  be  erased  as  soon  as  their  object  has  been 
accomplished. 

26,  There  remains  the  one  difficult  thing,  to  represent 
ground  forms.  It  is  never  expected  in  this  kind  of  sketch  to 
make  accurate  contours.  A  very  rough  approximation  to 
them  may  be  made,  however,  to  represent  hills  and  valleys, 
and  even  to  show  the  grades  of  the  road.  To  do  this  you 
should  first  get  clearly  in  mind,  as  described  in  map  reading 
above,  a  picture  of  what  the  contour  lines  would  be.    You 


260  MAP  READING  AND  SKETCHING 

are  going  to  try  to  represent  a  hill  beside  your  road  by  ap- 
proximating these  lines.  These  approximations  are  called 
"  Form  Lines,"  as  distinguished  from  accurate  contours. 
Unlike  the  latter,  they  have  no  reference  to  elevation  above 
sea  level,  and  only  show  roughly  the  elevation  above  the 
general  land  surface  thereabouts. 

27.  You  must  first  understand  that  any  two  contigu- 
ous lines  represent  a  difference  in  elevation  of  so  many 
feet — whatever  you  assume  this  interval  to  be.  An  in- 
terval of  20  feet  is  about  right.  Now  estimate  the  height 
of  this  hill  above  the  general  ground  level  in  this  vicinity. 
If  you  estimate  it  at  about  100  feet  you  may  use  five  form 
lines  to  represent  the  hill.  Here  is  a  very  important 
caution — do  not  sketch  ahead  on  the  assumption  that  the 
hill  is  going  to  be  a  certain  shape.  You  will  have  to  erase. 
Do  not  sketch  at  all,  until  you  have  ridden  far  enough  to 
be  sure  of  the  shape  of  part  of  the  hill  at  least.  If  you 
have  reached  a  point  in  map  reading  where  by  looking 
at  the  contours  representing  a  hill  you  can  construct  a 
mental  picture  of  the  hill  itself,  what  y6u  have  to  do  now, 
and  what  you  may  do  by  a  little  practice,  is  to  reverse 
this  process,  and,  looking  at  the  hill,  draw  on  your  paper 
such  lines  as  will  represent  its  height,  general  form  and 
roughly  the  shape  of  its  slopes. 

28.  This  process  is  recommended  to  you,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved you  would  find  it  an  interesting  diversion  for 
some  of  your  country  rides.  Then  sometime  on  patrol 
duty,  when  you  have  reached  a  point  of  observation  and 
obtained  important  information  for  your  commanding 
officer,  which  you  can  make  clear  to  him  only  by  show- 
ing, in  a  sketch,  the  position  of  the  enemy  and  roughly 
the  natural  features  of  the  terrain,  you  would  be  able  to 
do  so  not  only  to  his  satisfaction  but  to  your  own  credit. 

29.  And  now  let  me  urge  you  to  take  up  this  impor- 
tant part  of  your  training  at  once.  Do  not  pass  it  up  as 
hard  or  uninteresting.  You  can  do  this  work  alone,  and 
entertain  yourself  while  doing  it. 

Having  first  learned  to  read  a  map,  take  your  first 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  SKETCHING  2G1 

lessons  in  sketching  from  the  map,  rather  than  in  actual 
country.  Select  a  route  on  the  map,  and  imagine  you 
have  been  ordered  to  patrol  it  in  hostile  territory,  fur- 
nishing a  route  sketch  with  your  report.  If  you  want  a 
busy  evening,  include  in  your  imaginings  what  you  will 
do  with  the  members  of  the  patrol,  as  you  advance,  and  as 
you  halt  at  each  sketching  station. 

30.  Take  pencil  and  paper,  compass  and  ruler,  and  as 
you  proceed  along  the  route  in  imagination,  select  where 
you  would  have  to  make  sketching  stations ;  from  the  scale 
of  the  map  determine  each  distance,  station  to  station,  and 
figure  how  long  it  would  have  taken  you  to  travel  it,  say  at 
a  trot ;  so  many  minutes  trotting  means  so  much  distance  on 
your  sketch — lay  it  off;  determine  what  data  you  should 
put  in  at  each  halt,  how  you  would  have  gotten  it  in 
actual  practice,  and  put  it  on  your  sketch.  Go  through 
the  process  of  orienting  your  sketch  at  each  station,  sight 
along  the  ruler  for  the  direction  of  the  next  section  of 
road,  and  draw  it  as  you  would  out  of  doors.  Study  the 
contours  of  a  hill  beside  the  route  on  the  map,  until  you 
can  see  the  hill  as  it  looks  in  nature ;  then  draw  the  form 
lines  on  your,  sketch  to  represent  the  hill.  In  this  way 
you  may  familiarize  yourself  with  the  methods,  so  when 
you  take  them  up  out  doors,  they  will  not  seem  so  awk- 
ward. 

31.  Now  take  a  Sunday  morning  and  go  out  for  a 
country  walk,  or  a  ride  with  someone  to  hold  your  horse, 
and  bring  back  a  route  sketch  of  some  part  of  your  trip. 
Another  time  go  out,  and,  studying  some  uniformly 
shaped  hill,  try  to  represent  it  by  form  lines ;  then  take  a 
small  ridge,  and  gradually  more  complicated  forms.  Do 
not  attempt  too  much  at  first,  and  you  will  pleasantly 
surprise  yourself  at  your  ability.  Later  you  may  pleas- 
antly surprise  your  commanding  officer  at  the  excellence 
and  value  of  your  report  after  some  patrol  duty. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

This  is  essential  training  for  all  soldiers  before  field 
service  may  be  undertaken.  The  ready  replacing  of  lost 
and  damaged  articles  in  peace  time,  gives  a  wrong  im- 
pression. Take  pains  rather  to  impress  them  with  the 
fact  that  in  war  these  articles  may  not  be  replaced,  and 
that  their  absence  or  unserviceability  at  a  critical  time 
may  prove  most  disastrous.  This  is  equally  true  for  the 
Militia,  where  pressure  of  time  seems  generally  to  justify 
leaving  all  the  care  of  arms  and  equipment  to  the  em- 
ployees at  the  armory.  Every  one  must  know  the  im- 
portance of  keeping  everything  clean  and  in  serviceable 
condition,  and  how  to  do  it.  It  would  seem  practicable  to 
arrange  for  instruction  in  caring  for  some  one  article  at 
each  regular  drill,  until  at  least  the  most  important  ones 
had  been  covered. 

The  following  notes,  "  based  on  long  experience  and 
publications  of  the  Ordnance  Department,"  prepared  by 
Sergeant  R.  J.  Hughes,  Co.  L,  2d  U.  S.  Infantry,  Ser- 
geant Instructor  Conn.  N.  G.,  and  published  as  Bulletin 
No.  2,  ist  Cavalry  District,  are  reprinted  here  as  covering 
this  subject  most  concisely,  and  as  a  means  of  putting  this 
information  into  the  hands  of  each  individual  soldier. 

Castile  Soap. — For  washing  leather ;  lather  thickly 
and  wipe  off ;  only  cold  water,  and  very  little  of  that. 

H.  &  H.  Soap. — For  woven  equipment  only  (belts, 
suspenders,  haversacks,  canteen-covers,  horse-covers, 
shelter  tents,  etc.)  ;  use  only  cold  water,  and  no  other  soap. 
Avoid  the  use  of  scrubbing  brush  except  to  remove  stains 
on  belts  and  suspenders,  as  its  use  tends  to  fray  and  wear 
edges. 

Khaki  Blanco. — When  applied  lightly  and  evenly 
with  damp  sponge  will  restore  partially  worn  and  un- 
sightly belts,  canteens,  leggings,  etc. 
262 


CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT         263 

Neatsfoot  Oil. — For  use  upon  marching'  shoes  and 
halter  straps  to  keep  soft  and  waterproof ;  also  to  renew 
life  in  leather  that  has  become  hard  and  dry.  The  use  of 
this  oil  on  horse  equipment  other  than  on  halter  straps  is 
not  recommended.  If  used  on  halter  headstalls  the  action 
of  the  oil  in  contact  with  the  horse's  head  causes  the  hair 
to  come  off  where  it  touches.  Apply  sparingly  with  a 
moistened  cloth  after  leather  has  been  cleaned. 

Cosmic. — A  preservative  for  the  metal  parts  of 
rifles,  revolvers,  sabre  blades  and  bits  not  in  use.  Never 
apply  to  working  parts  of  rifles  and  revolvers  in  use  as  it 
will  gum  them,  especially  the  firing  pin  spring  of  the  rifle 
which  if  gummed  by  cosmic  will  so  retard  the  action  of 
the  spring  as  to  cause  misfire.  If  too  thick  apply  slightly 
heated.    Gasoline  is  the  quickest  remover. 

Linseed  Oil. — For  rifle  and  revolver  stocks,  and  for 
preventing  the  swelling  by  rain  water  of  the  wooden  parts 
of  jointed  shelter  tent  poles.  Apply  with  cloth  or  brush 
in,  or  before  going  to,  camp.  It  can  also  be  used  on 
other  tent  poles  to  prevent  dry  rot. 

Sperm  Oil. — For  lubrication  of  metal  parts  of  rifle, 
revolver  and  sabre;  also  bits  and  buckles,  and  to  prevent 
the  rusting  of  same.  The  oil  can  in  the  rifle  butt  should 
be  kept  full  at  all  times. 

Propert's,  Miller's,  or  Other  Harness  or  Saddle 
Soap  Containing  a  Large  Percentage  of  Oil. — For 
cleaning  and  preserving  and  making  the  leather  soft  and 
pliable.  After  removing  all  dirt  and  stains  from  the 
article,  apply  the  soap  with  a  damp  sponge,  making*  a  good 
lather.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  rough  or  unfin- 
ished side  of  leather  will  absorb  the  oil  and  life-giving 
propei;ties  of  the  soap  more  readily  than  the  glazed 
finished  side  of  the  leather.  When  nearly  dry  polish  with 
a  soft  dry  cloth. 

Sal  Soda. — For  cleaning  bore  of  rifle  immediately 
after  firing,  using  a  saturate  solution  and  the  usual  clean- 
ing patches;  then  wipe  and  dry  and  oil.  Due  to  rifle 
"  sweating  "  further  cleaning  may  be  necessary  later — 


264         CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

every  rifle  must  be  watched  until  it  is  known  that  the 
cleaning  process  is  complete.  This  solution  will  not  re- 
move rust  or  metal  fouling.  Rust  may  need  cutting  out 
with  kerosene  or  may,  preferably,  be  loosened  with  sperm, 
3-in-i,  Hoppe's  No.  9  Solvent,  etc.,  and  then  wiped  out. 
The  last  named  preparation  is  useful  for  all  kinds  of 
fouling.  In  the  absence  of  sal  soda  hot  water  has  been 
used  with  excellent  results.  For  treatment  of  metal  foul- 
ing see  below. 

Scouring  Material,  as  Lavoline,  Etc. — For  scouring 
meat-cans,  knives,  forks,  spoons,  tin  cups,  sabre  blades, 
bits,  etc.,  apply  as  per  directions  upon  container.  It  is 
usually  a  gritty  preparation  nez'er  to  be  used  on  rifles  or 
revolvers.     Use  with  scrubbing  brush  or  wire  cleaner. 

Sponges  are  to  be  used  in  lathering  leather  with 
the  various  soaps  but  not  for  oils. 

Russet  Leather  Dressing. — Apply  like  ordinary 
russet  shoe  polish  after  leather  has  been  cleaned,  and,  if 
necessary,  oiled.  Not  recommended  for  general  use  ex- 
cept on  sabre  belts,  sabre  knots  and  cartridge  boxes. 

Ammonia  Preparations  for  Removing  Fouling  and 
Lead  From  Rifle  Bores. — It  should  be  understood  that 
the  ammonia  preparations  supplied  organizations  are  in- 
tended primarily  for  use  in  removing  metallic  fouling 
(cupro-nickel  deposit)  due  to  firing.  The  compound 
made  therefrom  can  be  used  for  removal  of  rust,  but  it  is 
not  intendfd  for  this  purpose  and  there  are  several  objec- 
tions thereto ;  it  is  expensive  and  will  set  up  a  violent  rust 
if  not  wiped  absolutely  dry.  The  actual  damage  done  by 
metal  fouling  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  gradually  deposited 
on  top  of  the  other  regular  fouling  from  previous  shots 
and,  by  thus  forming  a  hard  coat  thereover,  prevents  re- 
moval of  same  and  may  cause  ultimate  pitting  of  the  bore. 
The  preparation  of  this  solution  from  the  ingredients  sup- 
plied is  indicated  as  follows: 

Pulverize  and  mix  2  medium  heaping  spoonfuls  of 
the  ammonium  persulphate  with  i  of  the  ammonium  car- 
bonate (ordnance  spoon);  add  }i  pint  of  the  ammonia 


CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT         265 

and  14  pint  water,  stirring  thoroughly ;  stand  at  least  J^ 
hour.  The  best  way  to  apply  is  to  plug  the  bore  of  the 
rifle  at  breech  with  a  cork,  fill  barrel  and  plug  at  muzzle 
or,  better  yet,  slip  a  tight  piece  of  rubber  tubing  over 
muzzle  and  fill  up  over  muzzle,  so  as  to  avoid  any  evapora- 
tion within  bore  or  spilling  upon  barrel  or  other  parts,  as 
this  solution  corrodes  steel  whenever  allowed  to  evaporate 
upon  it.  Leave  in  bore  30  minutes,  remove  and  wipe  abso- 
lutely dry.  Mixture  can  be  used  repeatedly  but  should  be 
kept  separately  and  not  mixed  with  fresh  solution. 

Storerooms  and  Storage. — Company  storerooms 
should  contain  no  property  that  is  not  clean.  Commanders 
should  take  steps  to  get  everything  in  first-class  condition 
in  this  regard  and  keep  it  so  by  a  systematic  effort  along 
this  line.  By  requiring  the  chiefs  of  platoons  and  squad 
leaders  to  assist  the  quartermaster  sergeant  it  can  be 
accomplished. 

Storing  Saddle  and  Bed  Blankets,  Articles  of  Cloth- 
ing, Etc. — All  these  should  be  cleaned  or  laundered  be- 
fore placement  in  store.  The  general  rule  is  to  have  noth- 
ing therein  unfit  for  immediate  issue,  and  in  considering 
this,  as  a  test,  assume  yourself  to  be  the  recipient. 

Canteens  should  be  scalded  inside  and  outside  of 
mouthpiece  before  putting  away  or  reissue.  If  you  have 
had  70  canteens  in  use  remember  that  probably  a  hundred 
persons  have  had  them  to  their  mouths — then  recall  the 
present-day  drinking-cup  laws  and  the  need  therefor.  The 
same  principle  applies  to  tin  cups  and  all  messware. 

Camp  Kettles,  Bakepans,  etc.,  should  be  thoroughly 
scoured  to  remove  all  food  particles,  soap,  grease,  soot, 
etc.  Before  storing  it  is  well  to  smear  with  some  vege- 
table or  animal  grease  as  lard,  mutton  tallow,  bacon 
grease,  etc.  Mess  chests  and  Troop  ice  boxes  should  be 
scalded  and  rinsed  with  water  containing  saltpeter  and 
thoroughly  aired  before  and  after  using. 

Field  Ranges  are  a  very  important  item  of  property, 
and  deteriorate  rapidly  without  constant  care  either  in  or 
out  of  use.    They  should  be  kept  in  the  best  possible  con- 


266         CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

dition,  ready  for  instant  operation  at  all  times.  Ash-box 
to  be  cleaned  out-^grate  wiped  off — ovens  wiped — flues 
well  cleaned.  Grease  all  over  or  apply  some  preparation  as 
stove  polish  to  preserve  as  well  as  add  to  appearance. 
Pipe  joints  should  be  freed  of  soot,  dents  flattened  out, 
ends  straightened,  etc.,  and  greased. 

Before  going  to  camp  the  organization  commanders 
should  thoroughly  instruct  their  men  as  to  the  importance 
of  cleanliness  and  how  to  maintain  it  for  each  and  every 
article.  Every  man  should  start  with  clean  arms  and 
equipment  and  be  made  to  understand  that  same  must  be 
kept  in  the  same  condition.  Explain  that  the  standard  of 
cleanliness  for  the  soldier — in  garrison  or  in  the  field — is 
no  less  than  that  in  his  own  home. 

In  the  regular  service  the  unit  system  of  supervision 
of  these  details  by  chiefs  of  platoons  and  squad  leaders  is 
in  this  as  in  everything  else  used  to  maintain  compliance 
and  to  assist  the  troop  commander,  and  by  constant  prac- 
tice becomes  habitual  with  everyone. 

The  Rifle. — While  drilling  always  have  the  piece 
cocked  and  on  the  safe.  When  the  company  is  dismissed 
see  that  all  the  triggers  are  snapped  on  the  empty  chamber. 
If  left  cocked  the  firing  pin  spring  becomes  too  weak  to 
fire  the  cartridge.  A  large  percentage  of  the  rifles  in  the 
mounted  service  are  rendered  inaccurate  by  reason  of  the 
carelessness  of  the  trooper  in  laying  aside  his  rifle  to 
saddle  and  unsaddle  his  horse.  If  the  rifle  is  dropped  on 
the  floor  it  strikes  on  the  front  and  rear  sight.  A  hook  or 
nail  on  which  to  hang  the  rifle  should  be  placed  on  or 
near  a  heelpost,  or  a  wooden  rifle  rack  placed  in  some 
convenient  place  in  stable,  preferable  near  the  exit. 

The  Revolver  is  rendered  unserviceable  in  most 
cases  through  ignorance  of  mechanism.  By  attempting 
to  cock  while  cylinder  is  open,  the  cylinder  spring  is 
broken.  By  keeping  the  finger  on  the  trigger  and  trying 
to  cock  the  piece  with  the  thumb  at  the  same  time,  the 
hand  spring  is  broken.  By  driving  shelter  tent  pins  with 
the  butt  the  swivel  and  stock  is  bent  or  split. 


CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT         267 

The  Automatic  Pistol.— Never  place  the  trigger 
finger  within  the  trigger  guard  until  it  is  intended  to  fire, 
and  the  pistol  is  pointed  towards  the  target.  The  pistol 
must  be  kept  clean,  free  from  rust,  and  properly  oiled. 
Excessive  oil  left  in  the  mechanism  will  cause  the  parts  to 
gum  and  work  stiffly.  Care  must  be  exercised  in  insert- 
ing the  magazine  to  insure  its  engaging  with  the  magazine 
catch.  Pressure  must  be  entirely  relieved  from  the  trigger 
after  each  shot  in  order  that  the  trigger  may  re-engage 
with  the  sear.  To  remove  cartridges  not  fired  disengage 
the  magazine  slightly  and  then  extract  the  cartridge  in  the 
barrel  by  drawing  back  the  slide.  Care  must  be  exercised 
to  insure  that  the  disconnector  is  properly  assembled  to 
the  sear.  The  hammer  should  not  be  snapped  when  the 
pistol  is  partially  disassembled.  The  stocks  need  never 
be  removed,  as  the  pistol  can  be  dismounted  and  assembled 
without  removing  them.  Use  no  hammer,  either  in  as- 
sembling or  dismounting.  Magazine:  Reasonable  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  magazine  is  not  dented  or 
otherwise  damaged.  Never  insert  the  magazine  and  strike 
it  smartly  with  the  hand  to  force  it  home,  as  this  may 
spring  the  base  or  the  intuming  lips  at  the  top.  It  should 
be  inserted  by  a  quick  continuous  movement. 

The  Sabre  and  Sabre  Scabbard. — Never  use  sand 
paper  or  coarse  emery  cloth  on  a  sabre  blade.  If  rusty, 
use  fine  emery  dust  and  oil  mixed ;  if  gummed  with  oil 
and  dirt,  use  sal  soda,  rinse  with  scalding  water,  dry, 
burnish  and  give  a  light  coat  of  very  fine  oil,  such  as 
3-in-i.  If  while  on  drill  or  parade,  the  blade  becomes 
wet  with  sweat  or  rain,  dry  it  thoroughly  before  apply- 
ing oil.  Considerable  water  will  enter  the  mouth  of  the 
scabbard  during  a  rain  and  lodge  inside,  and  if  the  blade 
is  returned  thereto,  even  though  the  blade  be  slushed  with 
cosmic,  it  will  rust  over  night.  Therefore,  the  scabbard 
must  be  hung  up  by  the  cord  and  allowed  to  dry,  or  held 
over  a  fire.  In  cleaning  and  polishing  a  blade  use  an  old 
pair  of  cotton  gloves,  as  the  perspiration  from  the  hand  is 
sufificient  to  rust  the  same. 


268         CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

The  Guidon. — Never  case  a  wet  or  damp  guidon. 
Tighten  the  ferrule  every  time  you  turn  out  mounted. 

The  Saddle. — To  clean,  strip  saddle  of  everything 
except  coat  straps  which  should  be  unrolled ;  wet  sponge 
with  cold  water  and  castile  soap  to  remove  all  dirt  and 
stains,  using  as  little  water  as  possible  on  all  parts  includ- 
ing inside  of  stirrup  hoods ;  then  with  a  damp  sponge 
from  which  every  drop  of  water  has  been  squeezed,  cover 
all  parts  with  a  thick  lather  rubbing  well  into  the  rough 
side,  especially  the  unfinished  side  of  stirrup  straps.  The 
hair  part  of  the  cincha  should  first  be  dry  rubbed  and 
brushed  to  remove  mud  and  dust,  and  then  washed  to 
remove  sweat.  This  is  most  important  as  sores  at  the 
girth  place  are  often  a  direct  result  of  failure  to  properly 
clean  a  cincha;  and  the  quarter  strap  and  cincha  strap 
safes  are  of  no  less  importance ;  they  should  be  especially 
soft,  pliable  and  clean. 

The  Bridle,  Curb  and  Watering. — Every  strap 
should  be  unbuckled  and  cleaned  with  castile  soap,  while 
the  bits  as  soon  as  detached  should  be  washed  and  scoured  ; 
lather  parts  when  dry.  Lather  thickly  each  strap  and  rein 
with  saddle  soap  and  let  it  dry  in,  when  nearly  dry  clean 
and  polish  with  soft  dry  cloth,  being  careful  to  remove 
all  lather  around  buckles ;  polish  bits  and  curb  chain,  apply 
a  light  coat  of  oil  and  assemble. 

The  Saddle  Bags. — On  returning  from  the  camp  take 
inside  canvas  bags  out  and  wash  and  hang  in  shade  to  dry. 
Clean,  lather  and  dry,  saddle  bags  most  thoroughly  before 
replacing  canvas  pockets. 

Lariat  and  Strap. — Clean  and  put  away,  oiling  metal 
parts  with  sperm  oil. 

The  Surcingle. — Wash  with  H.  &  H.  Soap,  clean 
leather  as  above,  oil  buckle  with  sperm  oil. 

The  Nose  Bag. — Scour  inside  and  out  with  H.  &  H. 
Soap,  use  Neatsfoot  oil  on  leather  bottom  and  saddle 
soap  to  clean  strap ;  dry  in  the  shade. 

The  Saddle  Blanket.— Always  fold  damp  sides  in. 
When  dry  use  horse  brush  to  remove  dust,  sweat  and 
mud ;  turn  frequently. 


CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT         269 

The  Currycomb. — To  remove  dirt  from  comb  when 
grooming,  strike  comb  on  iron  bound  edge  provided  for 
that  purpose,  and  not  the  tip  of  the  comb.  To  clean, 
scrub,  dry  and  apply  a  little  sperm  oil  to  metal  at  least 
once  a  month  ;  use  Neatsfoot  oil  on  leather  parts. 

Horse  Brush. — Always  place  on  back  to  keep  bristles 
straight ;  use  Neatsfoot  oil  to  preserve  leather  parts 

Remounts  when  received  are  very  often  infested  with 
lice  contracted  in  cattle  cars  and  sales  stables ;  the  curry- 
combs used  in  grooming  these  horses  should  be  disinfected 
by  dipping  in  bichloride  of  mercury  solution  after  each 
grooming,  should  be  kept  separate  and  used  on  no  other 
horse  until  all  lice  have  disappeared.  The  same  pre- 
cautionary measures  should  be  taken  with  the  brushes. 

Sabre  Belts  and  Cartridge  Boxes. — Keep  leather  soft 
and  pliable  by  applying  saddle  soap  to  rough  side ;  melt  a 
little  russet  shoe  polish,  apply  to  glazed  surface  of  leather 
with  soft  cloth  very  lightly  and  polish  with  dry  cloth. 

To  Fold  the  P3nramidal  Tent. — The  tent  is  thrown 
toward  the  rear  and  the  back  wall  and  roof  canvas  pulled 
out  smooth.  This  may  be  most  easily  accomplished  by 
leaving  the  rear-comer  wall  pins  in  the  ground  with  the 
wall  loops  attached,  one  man  at  each  rear-corner  guy,  and 
one  holding  the  square  iron  in  a  perpendicular  position 
and  pulling  the  canvas  to  its  limit  away  from  the  former 
front  of  the  tent.  This  leaves  the  three  remaining  sides 
of  tent  on  top  of  the  rear  side,  with  door  side  in  middle. 

Now  carry  the  right-front  comer  over  and  lay  it  on 
the  left-rear  corner.  Pull  all  canvas  smooth,  throw  guys 
toward  square  iron,  and  pull  bottom  edges  even.  Then 
take  the  right-front  corner  and  return  to  the  right,  cover- 
ing the  right-rear  comer.  ,  This  folds  the  right  side  of 
the  tent  on  itself,  with  the  crease  in  the  middle  and  under 
the  front  side  of  tent. 

■Next  carry  the  left-front  comer  to  the  right  and  back 
as  described  above ;  this  when  completed  will  leave  the 
front  and  rear  sides  of  the  tent  lying  smooth  and  flat  and 
the  two  side  walls  folded  inward,  each  on  itself. 


270        CARE  OF  ARMS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

Place  the  hood  in  the  square  iron  which  has  been 
folded  downward  toward  the  bottom  of  tent,  and  continue 
to  fold  around  the  square  iron  as  a  core,  pressing  all  folds 
down  flat  and  smooth,  and  parallel  with  the  bottom  of  the 
tent.  If  each  fold  is  compactly  made  and  the  canvas  kept 
smooth,  the  last  fold  will  exactly  cover  the  lower  edge  of 
the  canvas.  Lay  all  exposed  guys  along  the  folded  canvas 
except  the  two  on  the  centre  width,  which  should  be 
pulled  out  and  away  from  bottom  edge  to  their  extreme 
length  for  tying.  Now,  beginning  at  one  end,  fold  toward 
the  centre  on  the  first  seam  (that  joining  the  first  and 
second  widths).  Then  fold  over  the  opposite  edge  of  mid- 
dle width  of  canvas.  Then  begin  folding  the  opposite  end, 
folding  the  first  width  in  half,  then  making  a  second  fold 
to  come  within  about  four  or  five  inches  of  that  already 
folded ;  turn  this  fold  entirely  over  that  already  folded. 
Take  the  exposed  guys  and  draw  them  taut  across  each 
other,  turn  bundle  over  on  the  under  guy,  cross  guys  on 
top  of  bundle  drawing  tight.  Turn  bundle  over  on  the 
crossed  guys  and  tie  lengthwise. 

When  properly  tied  and  pressed  together  this  will 
make  a  package  1 1  by  23  by  34  inches  requiring  about  8,855 
cubic  inches  to  store  or  pack. 

Stencil  the  organization  designation  on  the  lower  half 
of  the  middle  width  of  canvas  in  the  back  wall. 

The  Gold  Medal  Cot. — In  setting  it  up,  to  put  on  the 
end  spreaders,  first  put  on  the  end  that  has  not  got  the 
sliding  slot  in  the  hole ;  then  sit  down  on  the  opposite  side 
rail  facing  the  spreader,  balancing  with  your  hand  on  the 
other  side  rail ;  put  the  bottom  of  your  foot  against  the 
face  of  the  spreader  near  its  end,  and  with  the  strength  of 
your  leg  snap  it  into  place.  Reverse  this  to  take  the 
spreader  off.  To  fold  the  cot,  having  removed  the 
spreaders,  pick  up  the  cloth  bed  along  its  centre  line  lifting 
until  the  side  rails  come  together  with  no  cloth  between 
them.  Keep  this  cloth  clear  while  you  fold  in  the  legs, 
and  you  can  use  it  to  wrap  around  the  bundle  including  the 
two  spreaders  so  as  to  hold  them  firmly  in  place. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

ARMY  REGULATIONS 

1.  The  following  paragraphs,  based  on  Regulations 
U.  S.  Army,  cover  the  points  which  all  military  men  should 
know,  for  their  proper  government  while  in  the  service. 
Beyond  these,  the  Army  Regulations  is  a  book  of  refer- 
ence, to  which  you  should  always  go  for  guidance  before 
taking  any  unfamiliar  step  in  military  administration. 

2.  Your  attention  is  called  particularly  to  the  para- 
graphs relating  to  the  care  of  public  property  in  your 
hands.  The  squad  leaders  must  be  made  to  appreciate 
their  responsibilities  in  this  connection,  and  they  must 
make  it  a  personal  matter  to  see  that  each  man  who  joins 
their  squad  is  duly  impressed  with  the  seriousness  of  his 
individual  responsibility  for  the  proper  preservation  and 
return  in  good  condition  of  all  and  any  government  prop- 
erty in  his  hands.  Let  this  be  taken  up  so  thoroughly  that 
your  organization  may  never  be  criticised  for  carelessness 
in  this  matter: 

3.  A  member  of  the  military  forces  owes  the  State 
and  the  United  States  twofold  duties,  as  a  citizen  and  as  a 
soldier.  Of  these  duties  neither  conflicts  with  the  other, 
and  conscientious  performance  of  his  duties  as  a  soldier 
makes  him  a  more  valuable  citizen. 

4.  An  officer  and  an  enlisted  man  of  the  military 
forces  of  the  State  or  Nation  is  subject  tO'  the  Military 
Law,  the  Regulations,  and  orders  issued  by  proper 
authority,  at  all  times  whether  on  duty  or  not. 

5.  '  All  persons  in  the  military  service  shall  obey 
strictly  and  execute  promptly  the  lawful  orders  of  their 
superiors."  The  question  as  to  whether  the  order  is 
lawful  or  not  cannot  be  made  a  matter  for  discussion  or 
decision  each  time  an  order  is  received.  This  would  fur- 
nish a  plea  to  the  captious  and  mutinous  to  justify  their 
insubordination.     The  controlling  principle  is  that  unless 

271 


272  ARMY  REGULATIONS 

an  order  be  so  manifestly  against  law  that  the  question 
does  not  admit  a  dispute  the  order  must  be  obeyed,  and 
subsequently  such  redress  may  be  sought  as  the  law 
allows.  If  its  legality  is  questioned  before  obedience, 
error  of  judgment  would  be  no  defense  for  its  dis- 
obedience. 

6.  "  Superiors  should  not  censure  their  subordinate 
officers  in  the  presence  of  other  persons,  and  shall  sustain 
their  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  whenever 
possible." 

7.  *'  Superiors  shall  not  injure  those  under  their  au- 
thority by  tyrannical  or  capricious  conduct,  or  by  abusive 
language."  Such  conduct  or  language  is  cowardly,  since 
the  recipient  is  in  a  position  that  makes  retaliation  im- 
possible. 

8.  Military  authority  shall  be  exercised  with  firm- 
ness, kindness,  and  justice.  Punishments  shall  conform 
to  law  and  follow  offenses  as  promptly  as  circumstances 
permit. 

9.  Courtesy  among  military  men  is  indispensable  to 
discipline;  respect  to  superiors  shall  not  be  confined  to 
obedience  on  duty,  but  shall  be  extended  on  all  occasions. 
Familiarity  between  officers  and  enlisted  men,  and  be- 
tween noncommissioned  officers  and  privates,  is  inad- 
missible when  on  duty.  Perfect  civility  is  compatible 
with  the  exercise  of  the  strictest  command. 

10.  Deliberations,  discussions,  statements  or  re- 
marks, with  respect  to  military  matters,  whether  oral, 
written  or  printed,  by  officers  or  enlisted  men,  criticising 
or  reflecting  upon  others  in  the  military  service,  are 
prohibited. 

11.  Communications  and  reports  with  respect  to 
military  matters,  by  officers  and  enlisted  men,  shall  not  be 
made  public  without  the  authority  of  the  officer  to  whom 
they  are  rendered,  or  superior  authority,  and  then  only 
so  much  thereof  as  shall  be  expressly  authorized. 

12.  Officers  and  enlisted  men  shall  not  seek  legisla- 
tion on  military  matters,  or  preference  for  themselves, 
except  through  the  proper  military  authorities. 


ARMY  REGULATIONS  273 

13.  An  officer  or  enlisted  man,  who  feels  aggrieved, 
may  apply  for  redress  to  or  through  his  immediate  com- 
manding officer.  Commanding  officers  shall  entertain 
such  request,  promptly  make  full  inquiry  into  the  matter, 
and,  where  necessary,  forward  the  result  of  the  inquiry 
to  next  superior  headquarters. 

14.  The  functions  assigned  to  an  officer  by  title  of 
office  devolve  upon  the  officer  acting  in  his  place,  except 
when  otherwise  specified.  An  officer  in  temporary  com- 
mand shall  not,  except  in  urgent  cases,  alter  or  annul  the 
standing  orders  of  the  permanent  commander,  without 
authority  from  the  next  higher  commander. 

15.  In  the  field,  in  the  absence  of  a  commander,  the 
next  in  rank  exercises  the  command  on  his  own  initiative. 
The  custom  of  the  service  requires  that  in  all  routine,  dis- 
cipline, etc.,  the  temporary  commander  should  generally 
carry  out  the  policies  of  the  permanent  commander.  On 
the  battlefield,  however,  the  temporary  commander  would 
use  his  own  best  judgment  as  though  he  were  the  perma- 
nent commander. 

16.  An  officer  who  succeeds  to  any  command  or  duty 
stands,  in  regard  to  his  duties,  in  the  same  situation  as  his 
predecessor.  The  officer  relieved  shall  turn  over  to  his 
successor  all  orders  in  force  at  the  time,  and  all  the  public 
property  and  funds  pertaining  to  his  command  or  duty, 
and  shall  receive  therefor  duplicate  receipts  showing  the 
condition  of  each  article. 

17.  Whenever  different  organizations  happen  to  join 
or  do  duty  together,  the  officer  of  the  line  highest  in  rank, 
present  and  on  duty,  commands  the  whole. 

18.  An  officer  placed  in  command  of  a  post,  detach- 
ment, guard  or  separate  force,  shall  not  surrender  his 
command  to  another  officer  unless  regularly  relieved,  ex- 
cept in  case  of  sickness  or  inability  to  perform  his  duty, 
when  the  senior  officer  present  entitled  to  command  will 
succeed  to  the  command. 

19.  An  officer  of  the  medical  department  cannot  ex- 
ercise command,  except  in  his  own  department ;  but  any 

18 


274  ARMY  REGULATIONS 

staff  officer,  by  virtue  of  his  commission,  may  like  other 
commissioned  officers  command  all  enlisted  men. 

20.  When  a  commanding  officer  leaves  his  station 
or  command,  he  shall  notify  his  immediate  superior  and 
the  subordinate  officer  next  in  command  of  the  fact,  and  of 
the  probable  duration  of  his  absence. 

21.  When  orders  requiring  immediate  action  are  re- 
ceived, or  the  preservation  of  discipline  requires  immedi- 
ate action,  the  senior  officer  present  entitled  to  command 
shall  assume  command  and  issue  the  necessary  orders  and 
transmit  forthwith  to  the  permanent  commander  notice  of 
the  orders  received  and  issued. 

22.  An  officer  called  temporarily  to  a  higher  com- 
mand shall  notify  his  immediate  superior  and  the  subor- 
dinate officer  next  in  command  and  the  latter  shall  there- 
upon assume  command. 

23.  To  test  the  capacity  of  privates  for  the  duties 
of  noncommissioned  officers  and  to  give  them  preliminary 
training  therein,  the  company  commander  may  appoint 
lance  corporals.  They  shall  be  obeyed  and  respected  as 
corporals.  .  Regulations  allow  one  lance  corporal  to  each 
company,  and  in  addition  one  for  each  vacancy  in  the 
noncommissioned  grade,  and  one  to  replace  each  noncom- 
misioned  officer  on  extended  absence.  Captains  should 
take  full  advantage  of  this  power  of  appointment,  not 
only  to  try  men  out,  but  to  stimulate  ambition.  Where  he 
may  have  but  one  or  two,  he  may  do  well  to  make  frequent 
changes,  establishing  the  fact  that  men  may  be  returned  to 
the  ranks  without  prejudice,  by  perhaps  selecting  such  an 
one  for  appointment  to  corporal. 

24.  A  noncommissioned  officer  on  his  appointment 
receives  a  warrant.  He  may  then  be  reduced  to  the  ranks 
only  by  sentence  of  a  court  martial,  by  his  own  resignation, 
or  by  order  of  the  authority  which  warranted  him.  The 
order  for  his  reduction  should  state  the  reason  therefor, 
and  the  date  on  which  it  is  effective.  When  reduced,  they 
return  to  duty  as  privates ;  except  those  who  have  been 
enlisted  as  noncommissioned  officers,  who  are  discharged, 


ARMY  REGULATIONS  275 

25.  The  commanding  officer  of  a  company  is  respon- 
sible for  its  appearance,  discipline,  drill,  and  efficiency ;  for 
the  care  and  preservation  of  its  equipment ;  for  the  proper 
performance  of  duties  connected  with  its  subsistence,  pay, 
clothing,  accounts,  reports,  and  returns,  and  for  the  practi- 
cal and  theoretical  instruction  of  his  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers. 

26.  In  the  absence  of  its  captain,  the  command  of  a 
company  devolves  upon  the  subaltern  next  in  rank  who  is 
serving  with  it,  unless  otherwise  specially  directed.  If  no 
officer  be  present,  the  regimental  commander  assigns  some 
officer  to  command  it. 

27.  Captains  should  require  their  lieutenants  to  as- 
sist in  the  performance  of  all  company  duties,  including 
the  keeping  of  records  and  the  preparation  of  reports  and 
returns. 

28.  The  company  commander  should  cause  the  en- 
listed men  of  the  company  to  be  numbered  and  divided  into 
squads,  each  under  the  charge  of  a  noncommissioned 
officer.  As  far  as  practicable  the  men  of  each  squad  will 
be  quartered  together. 

29.  In  camp,  or  at  posts  where  companies  are  not 
joined  in  a  general  mess,  the  company  commander  shall 
supervise  the  cooking  for  and  messing  of  his  men.  He 
should  provide  and  keep  in  the  kitchen  at  least  two  copies 
of  the  Manual  for  Army  Cooks.  One  officer  should  in- 
spect the  food  and  its  issue  at  each  meal,  and  the  kitchens 
and  utensils  at  a  reasonable  time  after  each  meal. 

The  company  commander  shall  cause  suitable  men  in 
sufficient  number  to  be  fully  instructed  in  managing  and 
cooking  the  ration  and  shall  see  that  necessary  utensils  and 
implements  for  cooking  and  field  mess  furniture  are  always 
on  hand. 

30.  Kitchens  will  be  placed  under  the  immediate 
charge  of  noncommisioned  officers,  who  will  be  held  re- 
sponsible for  their  condition,  and  for  the  proper  use  of 
rations.  No  one  will  be  allowed  to  visit  or  remain  in  the 
kitchen,  except  those  who  go  there  on  duty,  or  are  em- 


276  ARMY  REGULATIONS 

ployed  therein.     The  greatest  care  will  be  observed  in 
cleaning  and  scouring  cooking  utensils. 

31.  Noncommissioned  officers  shall  be  carefully  se- 
lected and  instructed,  and  always  supported  by  company 
commanders  in  the  proper  performance  of  their  duties. 
They  shall  not  be  detailed  for  any  duty  inconsistent  with 
their  rank  and  position.  Officers  shall  be  cautious  in  re- 
proving them  in  the  presence  or  hearing  of  private  soldiers. 

32.  Noncommissioned  officers  shall  be  examples  of 
neatness,  cleanliness  and  soldierly  conduct.  They  shall  be 
respected  and  implicitly  obeyed  by  subordinates. 

33.  Chiefs  of  squads  shall  be  held  responsible  for 
the  cleanliness  of  their  men.  They  shall  see  that  those 
who  are  to  go  on  duty  put  their  arms,  accoutrements  and 
clothing  in  the  best  order,  and  that  such  as  have  passes 
leave  the  post  in  proper  dress. 

34.  Company  commanders  shall  see  that  all  public 
property  in  the  possession  of  enlisted  men  is  kept  in  good 
order,  and  that  missing  or  damaged  articles  are  duly  ac- 
counted for. 

35.  Strict  attention  shall  be  paid  by  enlisted  men  to 
the  policing  of  their  quarters  or  tents.  They  must  keep 
their  persons  clean,  and  be  neat  in  appearance.  The  hair 
shall  be  kept  short,  and  the  beard  neatly  trimmed. 

36.  Each  company,  for  the  purpose  of  warning  for 
duty,  shall  be  divided  into  squads  in  charge  of  a  noncom- 
missioned officer. 

37.  Each  noncommissioned  officer  should  always 
keep  in  his  possession  a  list  of  the  addresses  of  the  men 
under  his  immediate  command  or  whom  he  may  be  re- 
quired to  warn  for  duty. 

38.  No  officer  or  enlisted  man  shall  wear  parts  of 
civilian  dress  with  parts  of  the  uniform,  but  shall  wear 
civilian  dress  entirely,  or  uniform  complete  as  prescribed. 

39.  A  civil  employee  or  servant  shall  not  be  per- 
mitted to  wear  any  article  of  uniform  of  the  kind  or  pat- 
tern described  for  issue  to  troops. 

40.  Enlisted  men  shall  not  take  their  arms  apart 


ARMY  REGULATIONS  277 

except  by  permission  of  a  commissioned  officer  under 
proper  supervision,  and  only  in  the  manner  prescribed. 
Tiie  polishing  of  blued  or  browned  parts  of  small  arms, 
reblueing  or  rebrowning,  putting  any  portion  of  an  arm 
in  a  fire,  or  removing  a  receiver  from  a  barrel,  is  pro- 
hibited. The  mutilation  of  any  part  by  filing  or  otherwise, 
and  attempts  to  beautify  or  change  the  finish,  are  pro- 
hibited. Pieces  shall  be  unloaded  before  being  taken  to 
quarters  or  tents,  and  as  soon  as  the  men  using  them  are 
relieved  from  duty,  unless  otherwise  ordered.  The  use  of 
tompions  in  small  arms  is  forbidden.  The  prohibition  in 
this  paragraph  of  attempts  to  beautify  or  change  the  finish 
of  arms  in  the  hands  of  enlisted  men  is  not  construed  as 
forbidding  the  application  of  raw  linseed  oil  to  the  wood 
parts  of  the  arms.  This  oil  is  considered  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  the  wood,  and  it  may  be  used  for  such 
polishing  as  can  be  given  by  rubbing  in  one  or  more  coats 
when  necessary.  The  use  of  raw  linseed  oil  only  shall  be 
allowed  for  redressing,  and  the  application  for  such  pur- 
pose of  any  kind  of  wax  or  varnish,  including  heelball,  is 
strictly  prohibited. 

Pistols  shall  be  kept  in  cases  if  possible,  otherwise  in 
holsters,  each  marked  with  the  number  of  the  enlisted'man. 

Sabres  shall  be  kept  free  from  rust,  slightly  oiled,  and 
always  in  their  scabbards. 

41.  It  is  forbidden  to  use  any  dressing  or  polishing 
material  on  the  leather  accoutrements  or  equipments  of  an 
enlisted  man,  horse  equipments  or  harness,  except  the 
preparations  approved  by  the  Ordnance  Department, 
U.  S.  A.,  for  that  purpose. 

42.  The  commanding  officer  of  a  post  shall  regulate 
the  manner  of  rendering  honors  in  the  parts  of  an  armory 
used  solely  for  recreation,  athletic  exercises  or  games, 
such  as  library,  billiard  room,  bowling  alley,  gymnasium, 
bath  room.  All  other  parts  of  a  post,  except  drill  rooms 
and  halls,  shall,  for  the  purpose  of  paying  honors,  be 
considered  as  indoors. 

43.  Tn  quarters,  or  anywhere  indoors,  soldiers  are 


278  ARMY  REGULATIONS 

supposed  to  be  uncovered  as  they  would  be  in  their  civilian 
homes. 

44.  Coming  indoors  an  officer  or  enlisted  man  un- 
covers, if  unarmed ;  if  armed  or  on  armed  duty  he  does 
not  uncover, 

45.  A  roster  is  a  list  of  officers  or  men  for  duty, 
with  a  record  of  the  duty  performed  by  each.  Generally 
details  for  duty  are  so  made  that  the  one  longest  off  is  the 
first  for  detail.  Details  so  made  are  said  to  be  made  by 
roster. 

46.  All  details  for  duty  shall  be  made  by  roster  to 
insure  an  equal  distribution  of  the  duties  among  those 
liable  to  such  details. 

47.  In  addition  to  the  company  roster  there  should 
be  kept  by  the  first  sergeant,  the  sergeants  and  corporals, 
a  pocket  roster  to  be  used  to  call  the  roll  when  necessary, 
and  to  make  details  suddenly  called  for  when  the  official 
roster  at  the  moment  is  not  obtainable.  This  roster  shows 
the  names  and  grades  of  the  men  of  the  company  with 
columns  to  the  right  to  mark  in  pencil  the  duties  they  are 
on  or  the  cause  of  authorized  absence.  The  first  sergeant 
when  not  calling  the  roll,  but  receiving  the  reports  of  the 
corporals,  should  have  a  list  of  those  authorized  to  be 
absent,  comparing  it,  as  the  reports  are  made,  with  the 
latter,  so  as  to  be  able  to  report  those  absent  without 
authority.  The  roster  to  be  kept  by  sergeants  and  cor- 
porals should  contain  the  information  necessary  to  enable 
them  to  warn  men  for  duty  and  to  account  for  them, 

48.  All  details  for  service  in  garrison  and  in  the 
field,  except  the  authorized  special  and  extra-duty  details, 
shall  be  by  roster;  but  officers  or  enlisted  men  when 
detailed  must  serve  whether  a  roster  be  kept  or  not. 

49.  An  officer  or  enlisted  man  returning  from  leave 
of  absence  or  furlough,  or  from  arrest  to  duty,  if  he  has 
missed  a  tour  of  duty  becomes  the  first  for  detail,  other- 
wise he  takes  his  regular  turn. 

Returned  to  duty  from  detached  service,  extra  or  spe- 
cial duty,  he  goes  to  the  foot  of  the  roster. 


MILITARY  CORRESPONDENCE  279 

50.  When  an  officer  has  been  detailed  and  is  not 
present  or  available  at  the  hour  of  marching,  the  next  after 
him  takes  the  duty.  When  an  outpost  has  passed  the 
chain  of  sentinels,  or  an  interior  guard  has  reached  its 
post,  the  officer  whose  tour  it  was  cannot  take  it,  unless 
so  ordered  by  the  commanding  officer. 

51.  Duties  of  the  first  class  are  credited  on  the  ros- 
ter when  the  guards  or  detachments  have  passed  the 
chain  of  sentinels  or  an  interior  guard  has  reached  its 
post;  other  duties,  when  the  parties  have  entered  upon 
their  performance. 

52.  When  detachments  meet,  the  command  shall  be 
regulated  while  they  serve  together,  as  if  they  formed  one 
command,  but  the  senior  officer  cannot  prevent  the  com- 
mander of  any  detachment  from  moving  when  he  thinks 
proper  to  execute  the  orders  he  has  received. 

53.  On  the  return  of  a  detachment,  its  commander 
shall  report  to  the  headquarters  from  which  he  received 
his  orders. 

54.  The  purpose  of  sick  call  is  to  determine  for  the 
information  of  the  commanding  officer,  what  men  of  his 
command  are  physically  unable  to  perform  their  field 
duties. 

55.  The  names  of  the  men  desiring  to  attend  sick 
call  are  entered  each  morning  upon  a  sick  report,  which  is 
then  signed  by  a  commissioned  officer  of  the  organization. 
The  names  of  men  who  attended  the  last  preceding  sick 
call  and  were  not  then  marked  for  duty,  are  copied  on  this 
morning's  sick  book,  and  the  men  themselves  required  to 
attend  sick  call.  The  book  is  then  turned  over  to  a  non- 
commissioned officer  detailed  to  march  the  sick  squad  to 
the  surgeon  at  sick  call,  where  he  presents  the  sick  report  to 
the  surgeon.  The  surgeon  examines  the  men  as  rapidly  as 
possible  and  enters  his  conclusions  upon  this  sick  report 
which  he  then  signs  and  returns  to  the  noncommissioned 
officer  who  marches  the  sick  back  to  the  organization  and 
turns  the  book  over  to  the  first  sergeant. 

56.  Military  Correspondence  shall  be  plain  and  con- 


280  ARMY  REGULATIONS 

cise;  statements  shall  be  made  in  such  terms  that  they 
cannot  be  misinterpreted.  Names,  especially  signatures, 
shall  be  written  plainly.  An  official  letter  shall  refer  to 
one  subject  only.  Telegrams  shall  be  followed  by  official 
copies  sent  by  first  mail. 

57.  Letter  paper  shall  be  of  uniform  size,  eight 
inches  wide  by  ten  and  one-half  inches  long,  and  of  suffi- 
cient thickness  that  the  writing  will  not  show  through. 
Official  communications  shall  be  written  only  upon  one 
side  of  the  paper  used.  When  more  than  one  page  is 
required  additional  sheets  shall  be  used  numbered  consecu- 
tively. A  margin  of  not  less  than  one  inch  shall  be  left 
clear  on  the  left  of  each  page. 

58.  All  official  communications,  whether  from  a 
subordinate  to  a  superior  or  vice  versa,  shall  pass  through 
the  intermediate  commanding  officers  (''  through  the 
channel  "),  except  where  specially  provided  otherwise.  In 
cases  of  pressing  necessity,  in  which  there  is  not  sufficient 
time  for  regular  communications,  the  necessity  shall  be 
stated  and  copies  forwarded  through  the  channel. 

59.  All  official  communications  relative  to  the  mili- 
tary service  of  your  State  intended  for  either  the  military, 
judicial,  or  executive  officers  of  the  United  States,  or  of 
other  States,  or  of  foreign  governments,  must  be  addressed 
to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  State,  and  not  through  him 
to  any  other  person  or  officer,  and  shall  be  forwarded  to 
him  through  the  proper  channel. 

There  should  be  kept  in  the  orderly  room  of  each  or- 
ganization model  forms  for  the  use  of  the  members  of 
the  organization,  showing  how  communications  should  be 
written,  addressed,  signed,  folded,  and  forwarded. 

60.  Orders. — "  A  military  order  is  the  expression  of 
the  will  of  a  chief  conveyed  to  subordinates."  Note  that 
the  method  of  expression  is  not  prescribed  ;  the  order  may 
be  given  in  writing,  verbally,  by  visual  signals,  or  in  any 
form  that  has  unmistakably  conveyed  the  will  of  the  chief. 
Orders  are  classified  as  routine  orders  and  field  orders. 
Routine  orders  are  those  used  in  the  ordinary  administra- 


RECORDS  AND  RETURNS  281 

tion  of  military  affairs  and  are  called  general  orders, 
special  orders,  circulars,  and  orders,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances. Field  orders  are  those  dealing  with  tactical 
and  strategical  operations  incident  to  a  state  of  war. 

6i.  Note  that  Headquarters  is  the  commander's 
official  residence,  or  place  from  which  his  orders  are 
issued ;  and  that  battalions  and  squadrons  are  the  lowest 
organizations  to  have  headquarters. 

62.  Orders  issued  by  commanders  of  battalions 
forming  parts  of  regiments,  companies,  or  small  detach- 
ments are  simply  denominated  "  orders,"  and  are  num- 
bered in  a  single  series,  beginning  with  the  year. 

63.  An  order  shall  state  the  source  from  which  it 
emanates,  its  number,  date,  place  of  issue,  and  the  au- 
thority under  which  issued.  It  may  be  put  in  the  form  of 
a  letter  addressed  to  the  individual  concerned  through  the 
proper  channel. 

64.  Details  of  officers  and  enlisted  men  for  guard, 
fatigue  and  outpost  duties  are  orders,  but  are  neither  gen- 
eral nor  special,  and  are  entered  in  the  respective  rosters, 
and  not  in  the  order  books. 

65.  Records  and  Returns. — The  records  of  military 
organizations  are  public  property;  they  should  be  care- 
fully preserved ;  and,  on  the  discontinuance  of  the  or- 
ganization, be  turned  in  at  the  headquarters  responsible 
for  the  organization. 

66.  All  officers  should  acquire  the  knowledge  of 
making  correct  reports  and  returns,  and  of  keeping  mili- 
tary books  and  papers  properly;  it  is  the  duty  of  com- 
manding officers  to  impart  the  necessary  instruction,  and 
require  their  subordinates  to  become  competent  in  this 
line  of  duty. 

67.  The  use  of  colored  inks,  in  records  and  corre- 
spondence, except  as  carmine  and  red  ink  is  used  in  anno- 
tation, ruling  or  compliance  with  specific  instructions 
issued  on  blank  forms  or  otherwise,  is  prohibited. 

68.  In  each  company  there  shall  be  kept  one  order 
book,  one  correspondence  book,  one  descriptive  book,  one 


282  ARMY  REGULATIONS 

morning  report  book,  one  attendance  book,  one  roster,  one 
sick  report  book,  one  record  book  of  field  small  arms 
practice,  one  record  book  of  armory  small  arms  practice; 
property  account  book  or  books,  separate  accounts  to  be 
kept  for  each  class  of  property  received  and  separate 
accounts  with  each  enlisted  man  to  whom  property  is 
issued. 

69.  Any  officer  or  noncommissioned  officer  fallin^j 
into  command  of  an  independent  unit  should  consult 
Regulations,  to  make  sure  that  he  is  keeping  proper 
records  and  making  proper  returns. 

Public  Property 

70.  Any  officer  or  noncommissioned  officer,  becom- 
ing responsible  for  public  property  other  than  his  personal 
equipment,  should  consult  Regulations. 

71.  No  arms,  equipment  or  military  property  of  any 
description  shall  be  loaned. 

72.  Officers  and  enlistd  men  are  responsible  for  the 
care  and  preservation  of  all  public  prop>erty  intrusted  to 
their  charge,  or  which  may  come  by  any  means  into  their 
keeping  or  possession,  and  shall  turn  it  over  to  the  proper 
officer. 

73.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  officers  and  enlisted  men, 
at  all  times,  to  take  the  necessary  measures  to  preserve 
public  property  intrusted  to  their  care  in  good  order  and 
serviceable  condition  ;  and  they  are  personally  responsible 
for  any  loss  or  damage  due  to  neglect  of  this  duty. 

74.  The  officer  in  temporary  or  permanent  com- 
mand of  a  company  or  detachment  shall  be  responsible  for 
all  public  property  used  by,  or  in  possession  of,  the  com- 
mand, whether  he  receipts  for  it  or  not. 

75.  The  property  responsibility  of  a  company  com- 
mander cannot  be  transferred  to  enlisted  men.  It  is  his 
duty  to  attend  personally  to  its  security,  and  to  superintend 
issues  himself  or  cause  them  to  be  superintended  by  a 
commisioned  officer. 

76.  If  any  article  of  public  property  be  lost  or  dam- 


MILITARY  LAW  283 

aged  by  the  neglect  or  fault  of  any  officer  or  soldier,  he 
shall  pay  the  value  thereof,  or  the  cost  of  repairs,  at  such 
rates  as  may  be  determined  according  to  law. 

77.  On  knowledge  or  receipt  of  information  that 
military  public  property  of,  or  issued  by,  the  government 
is  unlawfully  in  the  possession  of  any  person  not  in  the 
military  service,  an  officer  or  enlisted  man  shall  at  once 
report  the  fact  to  the  commanding  officer  of  the  post  where 
he  is  serving  or  to  which  he  is  attached,  who  shall  promptly 
take  necessary  action  to  recover  the  property. 

78.  Subsistence. — All  those  falling  in  charge  of 
separate  commands  or  charged  with  feeding  them  should 
consult  Regulations. 

79.  In  extreme  emergency,  a  commanding  officer  is 
authorized  to  purchase,  provide  or  arrange  for,  services 
and  materials  that  are  immediately  necessary  to  provide 
for  the  care  and  relief  of  the  personnel,  or  the  protection 
of  the  property,  of  his  command ;  a  report  of  such  action 
containing  a  statement  of  the  services  and  materials  pur- 
chased, and  the  price  thereof,  should  be  made  at  once  to 
next  higher  authority. 

Military  Law 

80.  The  Military  Law  also  is  one  of  the  reference  books. 
But  you  may  become  most  efficient  soldiers  without  much 
knowledge  of  its  contents.  Besides  State  laws  defining 
your  rights  in  riot  duty,  and  the  purchase  of  supplies  in 
emergency,  which  you  ought  to  look  up  in  your  own  State, 
it  is  believed  the  few  paragraphs  following  will  give  all 
you  need  of  law  for  normal  service. 

81.  All  able-bodied  male  citizens,  between  the  ages 
of  18  and  45  years,  and  every  able-bodied  male  of  foreign 
birth,  who  has  declared  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen, 
who  are  residents  of  the  respective  States,  shall  constitute 
the  militia,  subject  to  certain  specified  exceptions.  And 
of  those  excepted  all  but  one  class  are  liable  to  military 
duty  in  time  of  war,  insurrection,  invasion  or  imminent 
danger  thereof. 


284  ARMY  REGULATIONS 

82.  Whenever  any  portion  of  the  militia  shall  be  on 
duty  under  or  pursuant  to  the  orders  of  a  governor,  or 
shall  be  on  duty  or  ordered  to  assemble  for  duty  in  time 
of  war,  insurrection,  invasion,  public  danger,  or  to  aid  the 
civil  authorities  on  account  of  any  breach  of  the  peace, 
tumult,  riot,  resistance  to  process  of  the  State,  or  imminent 
danger  thereof,  or  for  any  other  cause,  the  articles  of  war 
governing  the  army  of  the  United  States,  the  articles  for 
the  government  of  the  United  States  navy,  and  the  regula^ 
tions  prescribed  for  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  in  force. 

83.  As  to  oflFenses  committed  when  such  articles  of 
war  are  so  in  force,  courts-martial  shall  possess  the  juris- 
diction and  power  of  sentence  and  punishment  exercisable 
by  like  courts  under  such  articles  of  war  or  the  regulations 
or  laws  governing  the  United  States  army  and  navy  or  the 
customs  and  usages  thereof.  Imprisonment  other  than  in 
the  guard  house  shall  be  executed  in  jails  or  prisons 
designated  by  the  governor  for  the  purpose. 

84.  Questions  as  to  commissions,  warrants,  enlist- 
ment, discharge,  etc.,  should  be  looked  up  at  the  time  to 
make  sure  of  correct  action  under  the  law. 

85.  So  far  as  you  are  affected  by  recourse  to  courts 
in  the  administration  of  discipline,  it  is  enough  to  know 
that  faithful  performance  of  duty  and  due  respect  to 
authority  and  observance  of  regulations  will  keep  you 
from  being  subject  thereto. 

86.  If  detailed  to  perform  any  function  therewith, 
you  must  read  up  the  law  covering  your  work,  to  be  sure 
that  you  perform  it  correctly.  Consult  particularly  the 
"  Manual  of  Court-Martial  Duty." 

87.  As  a  preliminary  step  to  trial  by  court-martial 
officers  and  men  are  "  placed  in  arrest,"  and  in  case  of 
serious  offenses  men  are  placed  in  confinement,  which 
means  under  guard  at  the  guard  house  or  tent.  "  Arrest  " 
is  a  temporary  status,  while  awaiting  trial.  It  may  not  be 
imposed  as  a  punishment,  nor  maintained  longer  than 
absolutely  necessary  to  bring  the  man  to  trial. 


MILITARY  LAW  285 

88.  Only  commanding  officers  have  power  to  place 
officers  in  arrest,  except  that  in  quelling  "  quarrels,  frays, 
and  disorders,"  any  officer  may  place  in  arrest  any  other 
officer  or  man  participating  therein.  An  enlisted  man  may 
be  placed  in  arrest  by  any  superior  having  authority  over 
him;  who  will  at  once  report  it  to  the  man's  company 
commander. 

89.  An  officer  in  arrest  may  not  exercise  command 
nor  wear  his  sword ;  he  remains  at  his  tent  or  quarters 
unless  more  extended  limits  are  granted  him,  and  com- 
municates with  his. superiors  only  in  writing.  On  the 
march  both  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  in  arrest 
march  in  rear  of  their  organizations.  An  enlisted  man 
in  arrest  performs  his  work,  and  even  attends  drills,  but 
would  not  be  allowed  to  go  on  guard,  nor  to  absent  himself 
from  the  company  without  special  permission.  Noncom- 
missioned officers  are  not  confined  to  the  guardhouse  while 
awaiting  trial,  except  in  aggravated  cases  or  where  escape 
is  feared. 

90.  If  called  upon  to  deal  with  any  matter  of  this 
nature  consult  Army  Regulations,  "  arrest  and  confine- 
ment," for  guidance.  In  the  matter  of  making  out 
"  charges,"  and  bringing  the  man  to  trial,  consult  the 
"  Manual  of  Court-Martial  Duty,"  as  well  as  "  Regula- 
tions." 

91.  It  is  recommended  that  organization  command- 
ers read  to  their  men  in  addition  to  reading  the  articles  of 
war,  those  paragraphs' which  name  the  oflfenses  for  which 
enlisted  men  are  liable  to  trial  under  your  own  law. 


I 


FIELD  SERVICE  REGULATIONS 
UNITED  STATES  ARMY 

While  these  Regulations  are  largely  for  higher  com- 
manders, yet  each  man  who  aspires  to  the  leadership  of 
even  a  squad,  should  have  a  copy  for  study  and  reference. 
They  are  as  necessary  for  field  service,  as  the  drill  manual 
is  for  drill.  They  contain  much  that  must  be  learned  now 
for  field  training;  and  will  be  your  indispensable  guide  if 
you  are  called  to  perform  any  special  work  connected  with 
field  service. 

The  remaining  chapters  of  this  book  are  designed  to 
discuss  those  Articles  of  Regulations  in  which  it  seems 
advisable  to  give  additional  matter  of  particular  interest  to 
company  officers  and  men.  Other  Articles  of  Regulations 
are  exclusively  for  higher  commanders,  and  need  not  be 
discussed  here. 

Orders. — Article  III  is  devoted  to  this  subject,  so 
important  for  those  in  command.  But  it  includes  one 
consideration  of  real  importance  to  subordinates ; — such 
familiarity  with  the  form  of  an  order  that  when  you  re- 
ceive one,  each  of  its  divisions  of  information  and  instruc- 
tions will  fall  naturally  into  its  corresponding  niche  in  your 
mind,  and  thus  you  will  be  instantly  aware  of  it,  if  any 
one  of  the  necessary  points  has  been  omitted.  This  is  very 
important,  and  should  secure  you  against  ever  starting 
off  on  your  mission,  incompletely  instructed  for  its  proper 
performance.   • 

Combat. — Article  V  contains  the  condensed  Art  of 
War,  and  many  of  its  meaty  sentences  would  furnish  food 
for  a  whole  evening's  discussion.  There  is  but  little  here, 
however,  of  practical  application  to  the  members  of  the 
company.  You  will  get  your  most  valuable  instruction 
for  combat  from  faithful  study  of  your  own  drill  manuals. 

287 


288  FIELD  SERVICE  REGULATIONS 

For  the  cavalry,  until  their  manual  is  available,  I  have 
pictured  a  dismounted  combat  in  describing  "  The  Fire 
Fight,"  Chapter  VL 

Machine  Guns. — ^This  is  not  a  fourth  arm.  These 
guns  are  supplementary  to  the  fire  action  of  both  the  in- 
fantry and  cavalry,  and  as  such  are  playing  a  vastly 
important  part  in  modem  combat.  In  our  service,  they 
are  served  by  a  detachment  in  each  regiment,  made  up  of 
details  of  so  many  men  from  each  company,  commanded 
by  an  officer  of  the  regiment  detailed  for  this  purpose. 

The  present  war  has  tremendously  emphasized  their 
value,  and  in  consequence  they  are  appearing  in  greater 
and  greater  numbers  in  each  regiment.  Experience  will 
establish  what  this  proportion  should  be  for  normal 
service. 

The  essential  characteristics  of  machine  gun  fire,  as 
compared  with  collective  rifle  fire,  are :  its  volume,  due  to 
the  mechanical  action  of  the  guns ;  its  density,  due  to  the 
compactness  and  small  dimensions  of  the  cone  of  disper- 
sion ;  the  facility  with  which  fire  can  be  opened,  directed, 
and  controlled ;  and  its  nerve  racking  rattle,  which  gives  it 
a  moral  eflfect  greater  than  that  of  collective  rifle  fire. 

The  gun  is  so  light  as  to  be  easily  handled,  and  is 
readily  carried  about  the  battlefield  by  hand.  It  repre- 
sents a  concentrated  mass  of  rifle  fire,  which  may  be 
delivered  from  a  contracted  front  on  short  notice.  Its 
weaknesses  are:  its  requirement  of  an  excessive  amount 
of  ammunition,  and  its  peculiar  vulnerability  to  artillery 
fire — and  it  will  always  be  the  function  of  artillery  to  put 
them  out  of  action  wherever  located.  On  account  of  the 
amount  of  ammunition  exhausted,  their  action  may  never 
be  continuous.  They  are  the  arm  of  emergency  and 
opportunity — for  use  only  in  the  decisive  moments  of  an 
action. 

These  considerations  will  indicate  to  the  thoughtful 
student  how  best  to  employ  these  gims  in  any  given  engage- 
ment. Any  one  may  soon  learn  their  mechanism,  and  the 
drill  for  their  employment.     The  thing  that  will  count 


MACHINE  GUNS  289 

will  be  the  ability  and  judgment  of  the  machine  gun  com- 
mander, in  properly  using  his  fire  for  the  best  interests  of 
the  general  fight ;  and  again,  the  proper  appreciation  on 
the  part  of  the  army  commander  of  the  true  functions  and 
capacities  of  these  guns.  Here  is  the  field  for  study  for 
all  officers,  and  the  need  for  much  practice  in  maneuver 
and  battle  exercises.* 

There  is  hardly  a  phase  of  combat  in  which  their  proper 
use  may  not  play  a  most  important  part.  Their  fire  action 
will  be  of  telling  value  in  conjunction  with  the  mounted 
combat  of  independent  cavalry.  In  both  the  defense,  and 
attack,  of  positions,  their  proper  use  is  likely  to  be  the 
deciding  factor.  And  remember  that,  while  without  mak- 
ing actual  hits  we  may  so  effectively  keep  the  enemy  down 
in  the  trenches  as  to  make  possible  our  advance  in  the 
attack,  it  is  conversely  true,  that  the  advance  of  the  attack 
can  only  be  stopped  by  actually  making  hits,  and  inflicting 
severe  casualties.  Hence  the  value  of  machine  guns, 
which,  by  sudden,  overwhelming  fire,  concentrated  upon 
the  assaulting  lines,  may  paralyze  the  attack  by  the 
tremendous  losses  inflicted. 

Any  man  detailed  as  a  member  of  the  machine  gun 
detachment  may  feel  that  he  is  fitting  himself  to  render 
even  better  service  in  the  fight  than  he  could  as  a  member 
of  his  company.  Let  actual  service  come,  and  this  de- 
tachment is  likely  to  become  the  corps  d' elite  of  the  regi- 
ment, and  justly  so,  for  the  splendid  service  these  guns  will 
render  in  the  fight. 

*  See  "  Combined  Infantry  and  Cavalry  Drill  Regulations 
for  Automatic  Machine  Rifle,  Calibre  .30,"  Supt.  of  Documents, 
Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.    Price,  lo  cts. 


19 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PATROLLING 

This  chapter  is  based  on  Article  I,  Part  II,  Field  Ser- 
vice Regulations,  and  quotations  are  taken  therefrom. 

1.  Military  Information. — This  consists  in  that  col- 
lected by  the  General  Staff  in  time  of  peace,  and  that 
obtained  by  troops  in  the  field  after  the  outbreak  of  hos- 
tilities. The  latter  covers  the  physical  features  of  the 
theatre  of  operations,  and  the  position,  strength,  composi- 
tion, and  intentions  of  the  enemy ;  and  is  absolutely  es- 
sential to  enable  a  commander  properly  to  determine  his 
movements. 

2.  This  information  is  obtained  from  various  sources 
— higher  commanders,  adjoining  troops,  inhabitants, 
newspapers,  letters,  telegraph  files,  prisoners,  deserters, 
spies,  maps  and  reconnaissances,  collected  under  the 
supervision  of  the  intelligence  section  of  the  general  staff. 
An  elaborate  system  is  organized,  including  an  efficient 
secret  service ;  and  in  this  system  the  work  of  the  troops 
consists  in  reconnaissance. 

3.  "  In  hostile  territory  influential  persons,  especially 
those  supposed  to  be  active  in  the  enemy's  cause,  may  be 
seized  and  their  persons  and  houses  searched.  Letters 
and  newspapers  in  post  offices,  and  files  in  telegraph  of- 
fices, are  carefully  examined,  and  anything  of  importance 
sent  to  higher  authority," 

4.  "  Unless  instructions  have  been  given  to  spread 
false  information,  all  persons  connected  with  the  mili- 
tary service  are  forbidden  to  discuss  the  military  situa- 
tion, plans,  movements,  etc.,  with,  or  in  the  presence  of, 
civilians  of  any  age,  sex,  or  nationality." 

5.  Reconnaissance. — "  Reconnaissance  is  the  military 
term  used  to  designate  the  work  of  troops  or  indi- 
viduals when  gathering  information  in  the  field.  Recon- 
naissance begins  as  soon  as  the  theatre  of  possible  opera- 

290 


RECONNAISSANCES  291 

tions  is  entered  and  continues  throughout  the  campaign. 
No  matter  what  other  sources  of  information  of  the  enemy 
may  be  available,  reconnaissance  must  be  depended  upon 
to  obtain  the  information  upon  which  all  tactical  move- 
ments of  troops  should  be  based." 

6.  "  By  Aero  Squadron. — In  forces  of  the  strength 
of  a  division,  or  larger,  the  aero  squadron  will  operate 
in  advance  of  the  independent  cavalry  in  order  to  locate 
the  enemy  and  to  keep  track  of  his  movements.  Contact 
with  the  enemy  once  gained  will  be  maintained  thereafter 
continuously." 

7.  "  By  the  Cavalry. — Reconnaissance  in  the  theatre 
of  operations  is  best  made  by  the  cavalry,  which  from  the 
beginning  of  the  campaign  seeks  to  determine  the  enemy's 
strength  and  dispositions.  It  protects  its  own  army 
against  surprise,  screens  its  movements,  and  insures  the 
safety  and  success  of  the  troops  of  other  arms.  The  de- 
feat of  the  hostile  cavalry  and  its  expulsion  from  the  field 
are  usually  the  best  means  to  this  end.  As  the  opposing 
armies  draw  near  each  other,  the  cavalry  endeavors  to 
secure  control  of  the  ground  between  and  bends  every 
effort  to  that  close  and  continuous  reconnaissance  of  the 
enemy's  forces  that  is  vital  to  the  success  of  the  entire 
campaign." 

8.  "  By  Infantry. — The  extent  of  the  infantry  re- 
connaissance will  not  be  so  great  where  the  aero  squadron 
and  the  cavalry  are  able  to  perform  this  service  effi- 
ciently, as  it  must  be  in  the  absence  of  efficient  reconnais- 
sance by  the  other  arms.  In  no  case,  however,  can  in- 
fantry reconnaissance,  preceding  or  during  combat,  be 
dispensed  with.  Infantry  and  artillery  cannot  rely  wholly 
upon  cavalry  or  aero  reconnaissance,  but  must  conduct 
such  close-in  reconnaissance  as  is  necessary  for  security 
and  to  determine  their  immediate  dispositions. 

"  In  the  absence  of  cavalry,  reconnaissance  at  a  dis- 
tance is  made  by  infantry  or  scouts  specially  detailed  for 
that  purpose. 

"  If  a  command  is  weak  in  cavalry,  or  the  country  is 


392  PATROLLING 

rough  and  broken,  it  is  advisable  to  use  reconnoitering 
detachments  composed  of  both  infantry  and  cavalry." 

9.  The  uncertainty  of  a  commander  as  to  his 
enemy's  exact  location,  strength,  kind  of  troops,  and  in- 
tentions, has  been  aptly  called  the  *'  Fog  of  War."  It 
hangs  like  a  screen  between  the  two  armies ;  each  com- 
mander is  using  his  cavalry  with  its  small  patrols  far  out 
to  the  front,  in  an  effort  to  penetrate  this  screen  and  gain 
the  desired  information.  How  impossible  for  either  to 
decide  wisely  what  to  do  unless  he  has  information  as  to 
what  his  enemy  is  about. 

10.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  work  of  recon- 
naissance is  of  vital  importance,  and  that  it  may  have  to 
be  performed  by  the  members  of  all  three  arms  of  the 
service,  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery.  It  is  the  one  field 
of  endeavor  in  which  the  individual  is  put  upon  his  own 
resources,  and  expected,  unaided  by  the  leadership  of  his 
seniors,  to  get  results  and  bring  them  back. 

11.  In  its  larger  aspects  it  is  an  important  study  for 
senior  officers ;  for  subalterns,  noncommissioned  officers 
and  privates,  it  means  accomplishment  in  the  art  of  patrol- 
ling. And  as  every  man  is  liable  to  detail  as  member  of 
a  patrol,  so  every  man  must  by  training  fit  himself  to 
carry  on  alone,  if  need  be,  this  important  mission.  For 
through  casualties  or  dispersion,  it  may  befall  that  the 
least  efficient  member  of  the  patrol  has  been  left  alone, 
and  he  must  be  man  enough  to  go  on  alone,  and  if  humanly 
possible,  get,  and  bring  back,  the  desired  information, 

12.  It  is  for  you  then  to  learn  first  the  duties  of 
patrolling,  both  as  leaders  and  as  members.  Whole  books 
are  written  on  this  alone,  and  you  may  well  read  them, 
as  you  can.*  We  shall  try  to  give  herein  the  fundamental 
principles  you  must  know.  Rules  cannot  be  relied  on  to 
govern  every  case  in  the  field.  You  must  leani  the  prin- 
ciples, and  then  apply  them  to  each  given  case  according 
to  your  best  judgment.     And  actual  practice  in  handling 

♦"Aids  to  Scouting."  Baden-PowelL  "Art  of  Reconnais- 
sance," Henderson. 


PATROLLING  293 

men  in  the  country  is  absolutely  necessary !  You  should 
try  to  secure  it.  A  few  men  can  easily  arrange  for  a 
Sunday  morning  together  in  this  practice,  and  if  some  one 
has  used  a  little  ingenuity  in  devising  a  reasonable  mili- 
tary situation,  it  can  be  made  most  interesting  and  in- 
structive.   This  is  natural  work  for  squad  leaders. 

13.  Patrolling. — It  is  impracticable  to  discuss  all  the 
different  kinds  of  patrols.  But  by  discussing  the  work  of 
the  reconnoitering  patrol,  no  matter  what  its  name,  which 
is  sent  to  a  distance  to  gain  information  of  the  enemy,  we 
will  have  covered  the  most  difficult  phases  of  patrolling, 
and  the  rest  should  be  easy.  While  this  includes  con- 
sideration of  the  use  of  the  horse — for  cavalry,  mounted 
infantry  scouts,  and  field  artillery — in  case  of  dismounted 
patrolling,  the  horse  may  be  dropped  from  consideration, 
without  affecting  in  any  way  the  principles  involved. 

14.  While  approaching  the  actual  conflict,  the  main 
body  of  our  army  is  usually  covered  by  a  cavalry  screen ; 
gmall  mounted  patrols  fanned  out  from  larger  support- 
ing bodies  in  their  rear,  the  whole  formation  interposed 
in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle  between  us  and  the  enemy. 
Its  purpose  is  to  screen  our  main  body  from  observation 
of  the  enemy,  and  to  find  and  observe  the  location, 
strength  and  movements  of  the  enemy.  This  latter  is  done 
by  the  use  of  advance  patrols.  Their  duty  is  not  to  fight 
but  to  find  the  enemy,  penetrate  his  screen,  gain  and 
keep  in  touch  with  him,  ascertain  all  the  military  informa- 
tion possible,  and  most  important  of  all,  to  transmit  it 
hack  quickly  and  intelligently  for  the  timely  use  of  the 
commanding  officer.  In  the  absence  of  cavalry  these 
duties  must  be  performed  by  the  other  arms. 

15.  The  size  of  these  patrols  is  determined  by  the 
officer  sending  them  out,  and  will  depend  upon  the  object 
to  be  accomplished,  the  number  of  messages  expected  to 
be  sent  in,  and  considerations  of  the  enemy,  distance,  ter- 
rain, etc.    A  patrol  may  be  any  size  from  one  man  up. 

16.  Preparation. — It  is  desirable  to  choose  for  this 
purpose  men  of  some  military  training  who  may  know 


294  PATROLLING 

what  they  are  looking  at,  and  judge  with  some  intelligence 
what  will  be  of  value  to  report ;  also  men  able  to  take  care 
of  themselves,  of  good  judgment,  resourcefulness,  wood- 
craft and  coolness,  preferably  those  who  have  had  ex- 
perience in  roughing  it  in  unknown  country,  such  as  in 
big  game  hunting.  If  allowed  time,  the  leader  should  in- 
spect minutely  the  men,  equipment  and  horses,  before 
starting  out.  The  duty  is  hard  and  no  man  or  horse  physi- 
cally unfit  should  be  taken.  Concealment  and  quiet  being 
necessary,  avoid  taking  a  white  or  conspicuous  horse,  or 
one  that  neighs  or  paws  the  ground  when  separated  from 
the  others.  (This  latter  becomes  a  frequent  fault  in  ser- 
vice horses  who  associate  constantly  together.  Occasion 
should  be  taken  frequently  in  training  to  make  the  horse 
work  alone,  separated  by  considerable  distance  from  the 
others.  Drill  in  individual  horsemanship  could  furnish 
opportunity  for  this.)  Arms  and  accoutrements  should 
be  inspected,  and  nothing  taken  that  glistens  in  the  sun- 
light or  rattles  at  the  trot.  Travel  light.  Leave  all  un- 
necessary articles  in  the  wagons,  if  possible.  If  likely  to 
be  out  long,  take  ready  cooked  food,  preferably  bacon 
sandwiches  and  a  canteen  of  tea  or  coffee ;  also  for  your 
horse,  a  nose  bag  with  a  feed  of  oats.  Where  learning  of 
the  presence  of  your  particular  organization  would  be  of 
value  to  the  enemy,  leave  off  all  insignia  that  would  betray 
it  if  you  were  captured. 

17.  The  most  common  fault  among  beginners  par- 
ticularly, and  the  most  costly  one,  is  for  the  leader  to  start 
off  without  really  knowing  fully  what  he  is  sent  to  do. 
He  will  not  have  gone  a  mile  before  assailed  with  doubts 
and  questions  about  this  point  and  that,  which  now  occur 
to  him  as  he  takes  time  to  consider  his  mission.  As  it  is  a 
most  important  duty  for  the  officer  to  give  his  instructions 
correctly,  so  it  is  important  that  the  patrol  leader  acquire 
the  habit  of  so  receiving  his  instructions  that  he  is  sure  in 
his  own  mind  as  to  each  of  the  essential  details  necessarj' 
for  a  clear  conception  of  the  object  of  the  expedition — 
"  his  mission  "  as  expressed  in  military  parlance. 


i 


INSTRUCTIONS  295 

i8.  These  instructions  must  inform  the  leader  what 
is  known  of  the  enemy,  what  are  the  immediate  intentions 
of  the  command  from  which  he  goes,  what  he  is  going  for, 
the  presence  of  other  patrols  near  his,  how  far  he  should 
go,  where  return  and  where  send  his  messages.  You  and 
each  of  your  men  should  thoroughly  understand  and  re- 
member every  part  of  these  instructions.  It  would  be 
well  always  to  repeat  them  in  the  presence  of  your  patrol 
to  the  officer  giving  them.  This  is  the  time  to  use  your 
brain  clearly,  and  be  sure  that  you  are  certain  of  each  of 
the  points.  Do  not  hesitate  now  to  ask  questions  which 
unanswered  will  later  make  your  action  uncertain  and  pos- 
sibly a  failure.  Above  all  be  perfectly  clear  as  to  your 
mission.  Knowing  surely  what  it  is  intended  you  shall 
accomplish  will  be  the  determining  factor  in  deciding  cor- 
rectly the  many  questions  of  action  which  will  come  up 
later.  Remember  the  importance  of  every  man  having 
fully  and  clearly  all  the  information  you  have,  as  anyone 
of  them  may  be  the  only  one  left  in  a  position  to  gain 
very  important  information  and  get  it  back,  and  had  things 
not  been  explained  to  him,  it  would  perhaps  never  occur 
to  him  to  do  this.  Moreover,  if  all  understand  existing 
conditions,  what  their  commander  is  about,  what  you 
know  of  the  enemy,  and  above  all  what  they  are  trying  to 
do  themselves,  individual  interest  will  be  aroused  and  their 
intelligence  and  resourcefulness  brought  to  bear  for  its 
accomplishment.  Here  is  an  opportunity  for  a  reasonable 
amount  of  suggestions  to  be  considered  by  the  leader. 

The  patrol  leader  must  provide  himself  with  a  watch, 
compass,  whistle,  message  blanks  and  pencil,  a  field  glass, 
reliable  wire  cutters,  and  a  map,  if  possible.  Every  soldier 
should  carry  a  strong  pocketknif  e. 

19.  Formations. — There  is  no  normal  formation  for 
a  patrol,  it  changes  constantly  to  meet  the  varying  con- 
ditions. The  leader  regulates  this,  keeping  constant  con- 
trol, generally  by  signals,  of  the  work  of  the  members  of 
the  patrol.  His  guiding  principles  are  that  the  formation 
must  be  such  as  to  favor  the  escape  of  at  least  one  man 


296  PATROLLING 

if  jumped,  to  protect  the  patrol  from  surprise,  to  expose 
none  to  view  unnecessarily,  to  disperse  for  observation  as 
little  as  possible,  never  to  use  two  men  to  look  where  one 
can  see  as  well.  Two  men  working  together  within  easy 
seeing  and  speaking  distance  of  each  other,  say  fifteen 
yards,  will  generally  lead  the  patrol.  Following  a  road, 
one  would  take  either  side,  and  that  one  would  scout 
beyond  a  curve  or  over  a  crest  to  whom  the  accidents  of 
the  ground  offered  the  better  cover.  The  leader  will  be 
next  to  these  men  or  one  of  them.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
enemy,  or  when  any  emergency  threatens,  he  must  be  in 
the  lead,  one  of  the  first  to  meet  it,  that  his  decision  and 
orders  for  the  conduct  of  the  patrol  may  be  immediate, 
and  not  delayed  by  having  to  wait  while  another  member 
of  the  patrol  explains  the  emergency  to  him.  Where 
necessary  to  investigate  a  point  of  danger  from  which 
the  patrol  may  be  fired  upon,  or  to  pass  a  defile  that  can- 
not be  first  reconnoitred  the  leader  will  send  one  man 
ahead,  to  investigate,  holding  the  others  in  the  best  forma- 
tion to  cover  his  retreat.  Whether  marching,  or  at  a  halt, 
he  will  always  have  men  in  observation  so  as  to  protect 
his  own  flanks  and  rear  as  well  as  his  front.  The  pos- 
sibility that  he  will  have  to  fight  demands  that  he  hold  his 
rxien  well  in  hand,  concentrated.  The  necessities  of  ob- 
servation demand  dispersion,  and  his  formation  will  be 
always  a  compromise  between  these  two  requirements. 

30.  Signals. — Especially  in  this  class  of  field  work 
quiet  is  essential  and  all  movements  must  be  controlled  by 
visual  signals.  In  addition  to  those  prescribed  in  the 
drill  manuals,  the  following  will  be  found  very  convenient. 

For  "Do  you  see  anything?"  wave  the  hand  hori- 
zontally across  the  face ;  for  "  Yes  "  nod  the  head  in 
affirmation ;  for  "  No  "  shake  it  in  negation ;  these  will  be 
exaggerated  to  accommodate  them  to  the  distance  sig- 
nalled ;  for  "  Enemy  in  sight  or  hearing,"  hold  the  pistol 
or  rifle  horizontally  over  the  head,  steadily  if  a  small  or 
distant  body,  raising  and  lowering  it  if  the  enemy  be  in 
force  or  in  dangerous  proximity.     "  No  enemy,"  hand 


CONDUCT  OF  THE  PATROL  297 

raised  with  weapon  held  vertically,  "Take  cover,"  low 
downward  motions  with  hand  palm  down.  Firing  an- 
nounces the  presence  of  the  enemy  to  all  within  hearing. 
Additional  signals  may  be  agreed  upon  between  the 
leader  and  his  men,  but  you  are  cautioned  against  attempt- 
ing too  many  as  they  are  likely  to  be  forgotten  or  confused. 
Care  must  always  be  taken  not  to  expose  your  position 
to  the  enemy  in  making  these  signals. 

21.  The  Conduct  of  the  Patrol. — Generally  your 
function  is  to  gather  information,  not  to  fight.  The  killing 
of  a  few  individuals  as  such  has  no  influence  on  the  war. 
The  advisability  of  leaving  the  rifles  in  camp  has  even 
been  argued,  lest  you  foolishly  yield  to  the  temptation  to 
fight.  Your  safety  should  be  gained  through  concealment, 
or  flight,  except  in  the  rare  cases  where  fighting  is  neces- 
sary, or  required  by  your  mission.  If  surprised,  or  in  a 
situation  where  you  must  fight,  act  with  extreme  boldness. 
Try  to  get  the  jump  on  the  other  patrol.  The  patrol  that 
is  the  quicker  in  this  will  probably  win.  It  is,  however, 
the  most  skilfully  conducted  patrol  that  can  get  the  in- 
formation desired,  and  return  to  camp  without  having 
been  seen  by  the  enemy. 

22.  You  should  move  cautiously  but  not  timidly, 
avoiding  unnecessary  exposure.  But  as  a  rule  you  can- 
not leave  the  roads  and  work  across  country  constantly 
under  cover  for  any  considerable  distance.  Time  is  a 
most  important  factor,  and  remember  your  mounted  patrol 
was  chosen  because  of  its  mobility.  Time  and  again 
patrols  have  gained  most  wonderful  information  of  the 
enemy,  which  has  been  absolutely  valueless  because  not 
gained  in  time,  or  at  least  not  reported  in  time,  to  be  of 
any  value  to  the  commander.  You  have  got  to  take 
chances,  got  to  make  progress ;  if  absolutely  necessary  to 
gain  the  information  you  will  even  knowingly  expose 
yourself,  and  then  bend  every  energy  to  getting  away 
with  the  information  and  getting  it  back  to  the  commander. 

23.  When  you  believe  yourself  nearing  the  enemy, 
or  are  passing  the  ground  especially  to  be  reconnoitered, 


298  PATROLLING 

you  will  generally  work  well  to  one  side,  off  the  road ;  and 
the  best  method  is  to  work  from  one  elevated  point  of 
observation  to  another  from  which  good  views  may  be 
had.  At  each  of  these  points  you  would  dismount,  and 
with  your  field  glasses,  from  concealment,  study  the  field 
minutely,  selecting  at  this  time  your  next  point  for  ob- 
servation. When  satisfied  that  the  field  contained  no 
enemy,  select  your  route,  and  move  by  it  quickly  to  the 
next  point. 

24.  Since  moving  objects  most  readily  catch  the 
eye,  do  not  assume  there  is  no  enemy  in  the  field  because 
you  see  none  there.  You  must  rather  search  minutely 
every  available  location  for  some  indication  of  his  pres- 
ence. He  is  being  as  careful  about  concealment  as  you 
are.  Remember  how  difficult  it  is  to  discern  an  immov- 
able object,  especially  if  it  be  such  as  to  blend  naturally 
into  the  background.  This  principle  of  absolute  immo- 
bility for  escaping  observation  has  its  application  to  your 
own  conduct  as  well  as  to  the  necessity  for  your  searching 
carefully  for  the  enemy.  Recall  how  wild  animals  will 
"  freeze  "  in  the  presence  of  danger,  and  thus  so  often 
escape  detection. 

25.  Even  in  advancing  along  a  road  the  leader 
should  scout  carefully  from  cover  to  cover,  that  is,  the 
more  available  man  would  peer  around  a  bend  in  the 
road,  or,  removing  his  hat,  would  halt  just  this  side  of 
each  crest  to  allow  himself  to  look  beyond  it  before  ad- 
vancing along  the  road.  The  system  of  advancing  thus 
by  "  leaps  and  bounds,"  hastily  from  cover  to  cover,  at 
each  of  which  you  scout  carefully,  can  often  be  employed 
by  the  leaders  where  the  nature  of  the  ground  admits. 
The  remainder  of  the  patrol  can  march  more  uniformly 
in  their  rear.  In  working  across  country  it  will  often  be 
best  for  the  whole  patrol  to  rush  together  from  cover  to 
cover. 

26.  You  will  of  course  avoid  passing  unnecessarilv 
over  crests,  getting  on  the  skyline,  or  where  the  back- 
ground will  be  favorable  for  observation  by  the  enemy. 


CONDUCT  OF  THE  PATROL  299 

Always  feel  that  the  enemy  may  be  watching  for  you, 
although  you  cannot  see  him.  If  you  must  expose  your- 
self for  a  short  distance  and  conditions  make  it  possible, 
cross  at  one  time  quickly  in  a  body.  Unless  the  enemy  is 
watching  this  one  particular  spot,  which  is  unlikely,  you 
may  thus  cross  quite  unseen,  or  he  may  just  think  he  saw 
something  and  wonder  if  he  was  mistaken ;  if  you  passed 
successively  and  attracted  his  attention,  as  he  looked  more 
closely  in  wondering  if  he  had  seen  anything,  he  would 
make  sure  that  he  had  by  seeing  the  next  man  pass. 
Reverse  this  in  passing  a  dangerous  defile  or  other  stretch 
of  country  that  cannot  be  previously  explored,  and  go 
through  successively  at  a  good-sized  distance,  and  at  a 
trot  or  gallop,  to  prevent  the  whole  patrol  being  captured. 

27.  Remember  that  the  danger  of  surprise  is  the 
hesitation  caused  thereby,  so  be  constantly  prepared  to 
act  quickly  in  case  of  the  appearance  of  the  enemy.  This 
requires  that  you  keep  your  mind  constantly  on  the  job. 
You  cannot  be  indulging  in  day  dreams  of  affairs  at  home. 
As  you  ride  along  you  will  naturally  note  the  points  at 
which  the  enemy  might  appear,  and  you  will  be  continually 
sizing  up  the  conditions  surrounding  you  and  deciding 
what  would  be  your  best  line  of  action  in  case  the  enemy 
appeared  at.  any  of  the  points  in  this  particular  location. 
Thus,  you  will  be  prepared  to  act  quickly,  and  nullify  the 
enemy's  advantage  in  planning  to  surprise  you. 

28.  Much  of  the  work  will  be  individual  scouting  by 
yourself  or  one  of  your  men.  Actual  scouting  does  not 
contemplate  covering  long  distances,  and  so  a  scout  is 
justified  in  sacrificing  time  to  concealment.  His  object 
is  to  gain  points  of  observation  without  being  seen ;  from 
these  jie  takes  time  to  make  the  most  thorough  investiga- 
tion before  advancing  further,  and  determines  his  next 
line  of  action  only  after  most  careful  consideration  of  the 
existing  conditions.  The  most  important  thing  for  the 
scout,  and  important  for  that  matter  to  the  members  of  a 
patrol,  is  the  ability  to  avoid  flinchnig,  or  in  any  way  show- 
ing your  consciousness  of  it,  in  case  you  suddenly  become 


SOO  PATROLLING 

aware  that  you  are  under  the  observation  of  the  enemy. 
You  should  not  make  the  slightest  sign  to  let  him  know 
that  you  realize  he  is  there,  but  continue  exactly  as  you 
were,  thinking  hard,  and  alert  to  take  whatever  advantage 
your  surroundings  may  offer  for  your  escape.  Not  know- 
ing that  you  are  aware  of  his  presence  he  will  generally  let 
you  come  on,  until  suddenly  you  have  dashed  to  some  pos- 
sible cover  and  gotten  away.  Your  mission  might  require 
you  to  investigate  closely  some  point,  for  example,  a 
bridge  or  river  crossing,  and  though  you  knew  that  you 
were  thus  practically  sure  to  approach  the  enemy  closely, 
the  safest  method  for  you  would  probably  be  to  ride  along 
nonchalantly  as  though  never  dreaming  of  his  presence 
and  with  every  appearance  of  riding  directly  into  his 
hands,  until,  having  accomplished  your  mission,  you  get 
within  striking  distance  of  some  line  of  retreat,  and  then 
suddenly  dash  for  it. 

29.  And  in  going  into  any  situation  which  the  pres- 
ence of  the  enemy  would  make  difficult,  you  should  al- 
ways consider  the  question  of  a  line  of  retreat.  It  would 
be  the  instant  of  delay  necessary  for  you  to  choose  one  in 
an  emergency  that  might  cause  your  destruction.  In  tying 
your  horse  to  work  dismounted,  leave  him  so  you  can  get 
him  and  get  away  quickly  in  case  of  trouble.  Likewise  a 
man  left  to  hold  the  horses  of  a  patrol  that  has  dismounted 
should  hold  them  ready  for  a  quick  get  away. 

30.  If  your  patrol  is  marching  across  country  where 
it  may  be  under  observation  of  the  enemy,  you  should 
take  occasion  to  change  its  apparent  route  when  conditions 
make  this  possible  without  observation,  thus  making  it 
more  difficult  for  the  enemy  to  jump  you.  For  example,  if 
an  intervening  ridge  cover  your  advance  for  a  little  space, 
change  your  direction  to  the  right  or  left  and  thus  cross 
the  ridge  to  one  side  of  where  the  enemy  naturally  ex- 
pected you.  In  the  same  way  in  entering  a  woods,  when 
well  within  them  change  direction  enoueh  to  come  out  at 
an  unexpected  point.  Wherever  practicable  pass  open 
spaces  at  a  trot  or  faster  gait. 


CONCOCT  OF  THE  PATROL  301 

31.  Do  not  get  lost.  Excepting  those  who  have  a 
well  developed  sense  of  direction,  "  bump  of  locality,"  it 
will  be  necessary  to  look  back  often  and  familiarize  your- 
selves with  the  appearance  of  the  country  to  your  rear  so 
that  you  can  recognize  it  on  your  return.  This  is  impor- 
tant for  every  man  in  the  patrol,  particularly  so  when  at 
any  time  any  individual  may  be  detailed  to  return  as  a 
messenger.  You  should  particularly  note  landmarks  at 
cross  roads  and  forks.  All  this  will  be  particularly  diffi- 
cult for  men  who  have  "not  had  practice  in  working  their 
way  through  country.  Every  soldier  ought  to  give  him- 
self this  practice  when  riding  in  the  country  for  pleasure. 
The  sense  of  direction  is  largely  a  matter  of  training,  and 
results  from  experience  and  observation.  You  will  be 
quite  helpless  without  it.  The  man  who  hasn't  it  should 
never  be  without  a  compass,  and  should  keep  himself 
familiar  with  the  compass  bearing  of  the  return  ren- 
dezvous. 

32.  As  you  consider  the  situations  you  are  con- 
stantly meeting  try  to  look  at  them  from  the  enemy's  point 
of  view.  Do  not  allow  yourself  to  think  of  the  enemy  as 
in  one  direction  only ; — when  on  distant  patrol  he  may  be 
on  either  side  or  even  in  rear  of  you. 

33.  Refresh  your  rations,  and  horses'  feed,  if  you 
get  a  chance.  Here  is  the  time  to  give  the  best  of  care 
to  your  horses,  to  keep  them  and  the  equipment  ready  for 
instant  hard  work.  It  may  require  their  maximum  endur- 
ance and  speed  to  save  you  in  a  dash  out  of  danger.  Do 
not  let  interest  in  your  mission  make  you  forget  to  water 
them  from  time  to  time,  so  that  they  will  be  ready  at  any 
given  time  to  go  reasonably  long  without  further  water- 
ing. Rest  them  when  you  can  by  dismounting,  and  never 
travel  at  speed,  particularly  up  or  down  hills,  unless 
necessary.  This  latter  is  a  great  fault  in  the  proper  use 
of  horses  at  maneuvres.  Men  and  officers  may  as  well 
realize  that  horses  cannot  be  rushed  up  hill  and  down  at 
a  run  all  day,  every  day,  and  not  quickly  break  down. 

34.  At  cross  roads  halt  the  patrol  under  cover  and 


802  PATROLLING 

send  a  man  to  each  flank  the  necessary  distance  to  get  a 
proper  view  as  to  the  presence  of  the  enemy. 

In  all  cases  where  men  thus  go  to  points  of  observa- 
tion it  must  be  the  general  rule  for  them  to  be  expeditious 
and  to  return  promptly. 

35.  In  entering  and  passing  through  woods  which 
you  must  reconnoitre,  your  natural  formation  would  be 
a  line  of  skirmishers  with  extended  intervals.  You  may 
arrange  to  assemble  at  the  far  edge,  and  in  any  case  you 
would  scout  carefully  to  the  front  before  breaking  out 
of  the  woods. 

36.  In  passing  any  short  defile,  like  a  bridge  or  ford 
send  one  man  over  ahead  of  the  patrol.  Do  not  enter 
villages  or  other  enclosures  unnecessarily.  If  to  be 
entered  send  two  men  in  ahead,  while  the  others  remain 
under  cover  until  the  two  signal  "  all  right."  And  then 
remember  to  keep  up  observation  to  prevent  surprise. 

37. 'If  you  suspect  the  presence  of  the  enemy  under 
certain  cover,  one  way  to  find  out  if  he  is  there  is  to  let  a 
man  approach  to  within  a  reasonable  distance  for  dis- 
covering his  presence  and  then,  acting  as  though  he  had 
discovered  him,  turn  and  run.  This  will  almost  invariably 
draw  his  fire,  although  otherwise  he  would  naturally 
have  waited  for  your  r-Mch  closer  approach  before  firing. 

38.  In  investigating  any  enclosure  or  cover  do  not 
approach  it  along  the  natural  front  line,  but  have  some 
one  or  two  of  your  men  turn  it,  that  is,  approach  it  from 
the  flank  or  rear. 

39.  In  an  unfriendly  country  avoid  the  inhabitants 
as  much  as  possible.  In  any  event  do  not  let  one  of  them 
go  ahead  with  information  of  your  approach,  if  you  can 
help  it.  In  time  of  war  enter  villages  to  seize  telegraph, 
railroad  and  post-of^ces  and  newspapers,  seeking  for  com- 
munications which  may  give  you  valuable  information. 

40.  In  friendly  country  you  may  consult  inhabi- 
tants, especially  such  as  travel  about  the  country,  doctors, 
horse  traders  and  so  on.  You  can  often  get  particularly 
valuable  information  about  frails,  by-roads  and  other 


CONDUCT  OF  THE  PATROL  303 

topographical  features.  It  is  quite  an  art  in  itself  so  to 
approach  a  rural  mind  as  to  gain  the  desired  information 
promptly.  You  might  practice  this  also  when  riding  for 
pleasure.  It  is  a  poor  time  to  be  too  smart  or  technical. 
You  must  not  rely  too  much  on  the  accuracy  of  their 
information,  particularly  about  the  strength  of  troops, 
which  they  will  naturally  exaggerate.  They  have  even  been 
known  to  go  wrong  on  distances.  You  must  expect  con- 
tradictory reports,  even  from  reliable,  honest  men.  If 
you  judge  information  thus  received  sufficiently  reliable 
and  important  to  be  reported,  always  include  in  your  re- 
port a  statement  from  whom  you  received  the  informa- 
tion, and  your  judgment  as  to  its  reliability. 

41.  The  less  information  you  yourself  give  the  bet- 
ter. Even  giving  false  information  for  the  purpose  of 
deceiving  the  enemy  is  dangerous ;  it  may  result  in  de- 
ceiving your  own  forces.  You  will  have  to  use  good  judg- 
ment in  this  matter. 

42.  Keep  quiet ;  forbid  unnecessary  talking.  Above 
all,  the  patrol  leader  should  not  allow  himself  to  engage 
in  conversation ;  he  must  keep  all  his  attention  on  the 
business  in  hand.  Everyone  should  be  alert,  observing 
everything  along  the  route.  The  most  trivial  signs  may 
prove  of  the  greatest  value.  The  action  of  cattle,  horses, 
birds,  and  other  animals,  often  indicate  the  presence  and 
location  of  the  enemy,  and  may  equally  well  betray  your 
own.  The  most  carefully  executed  maneuvre  has  been 
defeated  by  the  friendly  curiosity  of  a  few  cows  in  a 
pasture.  Tracks  of  horses,  men,  or  guns ;  their  probable 
freshness,  and  direction ;  abandoned  camp  sites,  articles 
of  clothing,  or  equipment,  envelopes,  or  discarded  papers, 
dust  jclouds,  etc.,  may  put  you  on  the  scent  and  inform 
you  of  the  actions  and  even  morale  of  the  enemy. 

43.  As  you  advance  through  a  section  where  you 
are  liable  to  meet  the  enemy,  from  time  to  time  you  must 
select  suitable  points  at  some  distance  on  the  flank,  and 
accurately  point  them  out  to  all  your  men,  explaining  in 
each  case  that  this  will  be  the  rallying  point  in  case  the 


304  PATROLLING 

patrol  is  dispersed.    All  men  must  understand  that  they 
are  to  reach  this  rallying  point  by  circuitous  routes. 

44.  When  using  roads,  march  on  the  sides  of  the 
road  to  avoid  making  dust,  to  avoid  the  sound  of  the 
horses'  hoofs  on  the  hard  road  surface,  and  to  make 
yourselves  less  conspicuous  by  keeping  near  fences, 
brush,  etc. 

45.  Getting  Contact. — What  are  you  going  to  do 
when  you  see  the  first  small  group  of  the  enemy?  If  it 
be  moving  you  must  determine  first  whether  it  be  a  patrol, 
or  one  of  the  covering  groups  of  a  column  in  march. 
If  a  patrol,  the  next  question  is  your  action.  If  you  are 
a  screening  patrol,  to  prevent  observation  by  the  enemy, 
you  will  take  proper  steps  to  secure  the  capture  or  annihi- 
lation of  this  patrol,  or  at  the  very  least  to  disperse  it. 
If  you  are  a  reconnoitering  patrol  seeking  information, 
your  effort  must  be  to  avoid  being  discovered  by  this 
patrol,  and  your  only  question  is,  shall  I  report  having 
seen  it  or  not?  If  your  instructions  included  informa- 
tion of  the  enemy  to  the  effect  that  patrols  were  known  to 
be  in  this  section,  you  will  not  report  it;  if  they  indicate 
the  possibility  of  the  enemy  being  here,  and  that  you  were 
to  find  out  if  he  is  here,  then  you  will  always  report  the  first 
sight  you  have  of  the  enemy.  You  see  now  the  necessity 
for  your  clear  understanding  of  your  initial  instructions. 
If  you  discover  this  group  to  be  not  a  patrol,  but  a  cover- 
ing group  of  a  large  command,  seek  perfect  concealment 
until  it  passes,  or  halts.  The  object  is  to  see  the  larger 
command,  gain  information  of  its  exact  strength,  direc- 
tion, and  rate  of  march,  and  get  this  information  back  to 
your  commander  as  quickly  and  surely  as  possible. 

46.  If  you  are  a  reconnoitering  patrol  you  may  feel 
secure  in  letting  the  enemy's  patrol  pass,  for  you  know 
that  you  are  supported  by  larger  bodies  in  your  rear  who 
have  their  own  protecting  screens  to  guard  against  ob- 
servation by  this  patrol.  If  the  enemy's  patrols  are  not 
known  to  be  operating  hereabouts  your  message  will  have 
given  them  timely  warning  of  its  approach.    Then  if  the 


GETTING  INFORMATION  305 

patrol  is  to  be  captured  or  fought,  it  will  be  their  function 
to  see  to  it. 

47.  You  are  out  to  seek  information  of  the  main 
body  of  the  enemy,  and  must  give  your  attention  to  that. 
This  generally  means  infantry  and  artillery.  Large  bodies 
in  movement  must  use  the  roads,  therefore  give  particular 
attention  to  the  roads.  If  seeking  forces  likely  to  be  in 
camp  or  bivouac,  you  will  naturally  first  strike  their  out- 
posts, and  you  should  seek  these  on  those  elevated  points 
that  naturally  give  the  enemy  the  best  lookout  and  line  of 
defense.  If  you  discover  them,  without  stumbling  on 
them,  it  will  be  by  patient  searching  with  your  glasses, 
and  your  first  indication  of  their  presence  will  probably 
be  some  slight  movement  on  their  part,  or  a  flash  of  sun- 
light from  objects  of  their  equipment. 

48.  Even  though  your  object  be  to  locate  the  main 
body,  you  should  report  the  presence  of  any  large  com- 
mand. Unless  your  instructions  clearly  indicated  other- 
wise, you  should  report  a  troop  or  company  or  anything 
larger. 

49.  For  obtaining  information  of  a  command  on  the 
march,  you  would  take  a  position  in  concealment  on  one 
flank,  far  enough  away  to  escape  detection  by  his  flankers, 
and  affording  you  a  fair  line  of  retreat.  Avoid  choosing 
a  prominent  point  which  he  is  likely  to  search.  While 
in  concealment  keep  your  horses  grouped  together  to  avoid 
their  being  restive,  under  perfect  cover  if  possible,  at  least 
out  of  the  sunlight.  The  polished  leather  seat  of  the  sad- 
dle will  flash  a  sunbeam  like  a  metal  surface,  and  yours 
should  be  covered  if  exposed  to  the  sun.  You  are  looking 
for  just  such  flashes  when  searching  with  your  glasses  for 
the  enemy  in  concealment.  Even  the  tires  of  the  wheels 
of  a  masked  battery  may  flash  you  intelligence  of  its  loca- 
tion. While  here  in  concealment,  as  at  all  other  halts,  your 
patrol  should  be  stationed  as  march  outposts  in  observa- 
tion covering  every  possible  line  of  approach  to  prevent 
surprise.    Do  not  forget  this  important  thing. 

50.  Your  observation  is  to  determine  the  strength, 
20 


306  PATROLLING 

kind  of  troops,  and  movement  of  the  enemy.  Every  man 
must  know  the  following  rule  for  determining  strength: 
Marching  in  column  of  fours,  fresh  troops  closed  up  will 
pass  a  given  point  at  the  rate  of  about  175  infantry,  or  no 
cavalry,  or  5  guns  or  caissons  in  one  minute.  This  is  at  a 
walk ;  double  it  for  the  trot. 

51.  Having  gained  the  information,  you  are  ready 
to  send  back  a  message.  This  is  taken  by  two  men  going 
together  for  mutual  protection,  in  hostile  territory.  In 
friendly  country  a  single  messenger  may  be  sent.  Very 
important  messages  should  often  be  sent  in  duplicate,  the 
messengers  going  by  different  routes.  And  now  do  not 
lose  touch  with  the  enemy.  Reconnoitering  patrols  are 
like  a  swarm  of  flies,  driven  away  perhaps,  but  always  re- 
turning. Hang  on  to  the  enemy's  flanks  or  outposts,  keep 
him  in  constant  observation.  You  are  not  only  annoying 
him,  but  will  make  him  anxious  for  the  success  of  a  con- 
templated movement,  since  he  feels  that  your  commander 
must  be  aware  of  it.  And  remember  how  important  that 
your  commander  be  made  instantly  aware  of  the  enemy's 
movements.  Do  not  hesitate  to  send  back  your  last  man 
with  important  information,  and  to  remain  alone  in  further 
observation. 

52.  If  your  patrol  is  jumped,  further  effort  at  con- 
cealment is  useless.  You  may,  however,  gain  a  few  pre- 
cious minutes  by  avoiding  the  use  of  firearms,  in  case  the 
enemy  is  equally  accommodating.  If  his  be  a  small  patrol, 
by  quickness  try  to  get  the  jump  on  him.  He  is  just  as 
much  afraid  as  you  are.  If  too  many  to  attack,  disperse 
and  reassemble  at  the  last  designated  rallying  point.  If 
this  is  impossible,  let  each  man  try  to  continue  individual 
reconnaissance  alone. 

53.  If  your  instructions  were  to  seek  the  presence  of 
the  enemy,  negative  information  is  often  equally  im- 
portant. Keep  this  in  mind  and  send  back  word  that  you 
have  investigated  so  and  so  and  found  no  evidence  of  the 
enemy.  This  is  too  often  overlooked  and  commanding 
officers  are  left  in  grave  doubt,  ignorant  as  to  whether 


GETTING  INFORMATION  307 

their  patrols  have  been  captured  or  gone  astray  ;  and  as  to 
whether  or  not  the  enemy  is  approaching  in  force  when  his 
presence  is  anticipated.  Remember  that  you  are  your 
troop  commander's  eye  and  ear,  and  do  not  leave  him 
back  there  blind  and  deaf  in  a  critical  time.  If  you  are 
keeping  him  in  mind,  as  well  as  your  mission,  your  best 
judgment  will  tell  you  what  messages  to  send,  and  when 
to  send  them.  If  he  has  failed  in  his  instructions  to  tell 
you  of  his  situation  and  his  ideas  as  to  the  enemy,  it  is 
his  own  fault  if  you  do  not  keep  him  satisfactorily  in- 
formed. 

54.  It  is  often  your  duty  to  exceed  instructions.  For 
•  example,  if  you  were  ordered  to  patrol  to  a  certain  village, 
looking  for  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  and  in  that  village 
were  told  that  a  hostile  command  was  in  camp  a  mile  or 
so  out  the  other  side,  you  would  be  culpable  in  returning 
without  investigating  this  report,  and  trying  to  gain  ac- 
curate information  of  the  enemy.  In  this  case  you  would 
send  a  message  reporting  what  you  had  been  told  at  the 
village,  and  what  you  proposed  to  do  in  going  further. 
Again,  when  sent  to  a  certain  point  or  for  a  certain  distance 
for  observation,  if  after  arriving,  you  see  the  necessity 
for  going  further  in  order  to  gain  the  necessary  view,  your 
duty  requires  you  to  go  ahead.  A  soldier  on  reconnais- 
sance is  not  obeying  orders  at  drill,  he  is  a  responsible 
member  of  the  team,  and  must  faithfully  carry  out  the 
plan  of  his  team  captain,  gladly  taking  responsibility  when 
necessary,  always  using  his  best  judgment.  And  even  if 
he  goes  wrong,  his  leader  will  never  condemn  him,  if  he 
may  believe  his  action  was  taken  conscientiously  and 
loyally. 

55.^  Even  when  concealed  and  undisturbed  in  a  good 
point  of  observation,  the  getting  of  military  information 
is  no  simple  matter.  It  requires  thought  and  training  to 
know  just  what  your  commanding  officer  should  be  told. 
It  is  not  enough  to  tell  him  that  a  squadron  of  cavalry, 
one  troop  in  advance  guard  formation,  is  passing  A.  J. 
Smith's  house  at  9:30.    Even  if  A.  J.  Smith's  house  were 


308  PATROLLING 

located,  even  if  you  gave  the  direction  in  which  passing, 
even  if  you  had  included  the  gait,  your  message  would 
still  be  incomplete.  When  troops  are  approaching  con- 
tact, minutes  are  precious,  and  your  message  should  have 
been  exact  in  stating  that  the  point  of  the  advance  guard, 
tail  of  the  column,  or  some  other  well-known  element  in 
the  column,  passed  the  house  at  such  and  such  a  minute. 
Your  commander  could  then  figure  the  time  of  its  arrival 
at  a  given  point.  If  troops  were  stationary,  he  would  be 
interested  in  the  location  of  their  various  elements,  particu- 
larly their  outpost  and  its  flanks,  the  reserve,  the  wagon 
train,  artillery,  lines  of  communication,  defensive  works, 
etc.  You  could  also  give  him  general,  if  not  technical 
information  as  to  the  terrain,  lines  of  approach,  etc. 

56.  Even  if  your  mission  does  not  require  such  re- 
port, so  long  as  you  can  do  it  without  interfering  with 
your  mission,  the  more  you  see  and  locate  of  the  military 
features  of  the  country  you  are  passing  through,  the  more 
valuable  your  report  may  become ;  and  you  are  certainly 
training  yourself  to  be  a  more  valuable  military  leader. 
More  than  one  youngster  has  been  brought  into  promi- 
nence, and  later  been  given  military  preferment,  because 
he  had  so  intelligently  sized  up  the  country  that  in  an 
emergency  he  was  the  one  man  whose  knowledge  of  a 
round-about  route  or  position  of  advantage,  gave  his 
commanding  officer  an  unexpected  advantage  in  maneuver- 
ing or  in  actual  battle.  You  may  well  train  for  this  by 
acquiring  the  habit  now  as  you  ride  through  the  country 
of  hearing  and  seeing  everything  about  you.  As  one 
general  has  expressed  it,  "  practice  until  you  can  foretell 
what  is  on  the  other  side  of  a  hill  before  you." 

57.  A  patrol  should  never  destroy  bridges,  roads  or 
any  means  of  communication,  unless  specifically  instructed 
to  do  so.  To  do  so  is  as  likely  to  embarrass  the  plans  of 
his  own  commander  as  those  of  the  enemy. 

58.  Messages. — In  writing  your  messages  do  not 
locate  your  patrol  too  exactly,  it  is  generally  a  waste  of 
time,  and  the  message  may  be  intercepted  and  thus  lead  to 


MESSAGES  309 

your  capture.  In  writing  dates  use  this  fonn — 16  May, 
1914.  Fill  in  the  hour  the  last  thing  you  do,  giving  the 
exact  minute.  The  blank  for  number  is  to  be  used  in 
numbering  your  messages  on  this  tour  of  duty  consecu- 
tively, so  that  the  commanding  officer,  in  receiving  them, 
may  know  if  he  has  failed  to  receive  any  previous  mes- 
sages from  you.  In  addressing  the  message  avoid  any- 
thing which  could  give  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemy  if 
captured ;  even  naming  your  commander's  rank  would 
give  a  good  indication  of  the  size  of  the  command  at  least. 
'*  C.  O.  advance  guard,"  "  C.  O.  at  Brushtown,"  are 
definite  enough  and  give  the  least  possible  information. 
Wagner  gives  the  following :  "  The  indispensable  quali- 
ties of  a  written  report  are  scrupulous  accuracy  as  to  facts, 
simplicity,  clearness  of  diction,  legibility  of  handwriting 
and  correct  spelling  of  proper  names.  Surmises  should 
never  be  given  as  facts,  and  the  person  making  the  report 
should  carefully  separate  what  he  himself  knows  from 
what  he  has  been  told  him  by  others.  Brevity  is  desirable, 
but  not  at  the  price  of  obscurity.  A  report  should  not 
be  expressed  ambiguously  in  ten  words  when  it  can  be 
stated  clearly  in  twenty." 

59.  The  most  intelligent  men  need  practice  in  giv- 
ing military  information  by  written  messages,  and  the 
troop  commander  should  take  occasion  at  noncommis- 
sioned officers'  schools  frequently  to  state  the  conditions 
of  an  assumed  situation  requiring  a  message  to  be  sent, 
and  practice  all  his  noncommissioned  officers  in  writing  a 
correct  message  to  cover  the  case. 

Appendix,  Field  Service  Regulations,  shows  the  form 
of  the  United  States  Army  field  message  blank  and  its 
envelope.  These  blanks  are  furnished  in  pads  for  the  use 
of  officers'  and  noncommissioned  officers'  schools,  and 
they  should  be  secured  and  used  until  all  are  familiar  with 
their  proper  use. 

60.  Verbal  messages  will  not  do.  It  has  been  found 
impracticable  to  send  them  correctly  even  by  intelligent 
messengers.    If  absolutely  impossible  to  write  a  message, 


SIO  PATROLLING 

the  man  should  go  who  best  knows  of  his  own  personal 
knowledge  the  matter  to  be  reported.  Verbal  messages 
have  often  failed  where  it  was  attempted  to  convey  but  one 
simple,  direct  statement. 

6i.  If  time  admits  write  your  message  with  extreme 
care.  Be  sure  it  conveys  the  information  your  command- 
ing officer  will  want  so  far  as  you  know  it,  looked  at  from 
his  point  of  view.     Proper  names  must  be  printed. 

62.  It  is  well  for  your  messenger  to  know  the  con- 
tents of  the  message  as  he  may  have  to  destroy  it  to  pre- 
vent its  capture,  and  later  may  find  himself  able  to  deliver 
the  information.  If  you  have  read  and  explained  the  mes- 
sage to  him,  he  may  be  able  more  intelligently  to  answer 
questions  which  the  commanding  officer  will  want  to  ask 
after  reading  the  message.  Of  course,  your  messenger 
must  know  how  to  get  back  to  the  command ;  it  may  be 
that  you  will  have  to  give  him  a  rough  route  sketch.  Tell 
him  at  what  rate  he  is  to  travel  whether  "  ordinary  "  (walk 
and  trot),  "  rapid  "  (trot),  or  "  urgent  "  (full  speed),  and 
whether  or  not  he  is  to  rejoin  you.  and  where.  In  writing 
a  message,  if  time  admits,  it  is  well  to  give  a  brief  resume 
of  important  facts  previously  reported.  Indicate  roads 
by  naming  two  points  thereon.  If  you  give  a  bearing  of  a 
point,  specify  whether  it  is  compass  or  true  bearing. 

63.  Where  the  capture  of  your  messenger  is  likely, 
you  might  give  him  a  false  message,  carried  where  found 
easily,  while  the  true  message  is  carefully  concealed  in 
the  folds  of  his  saddle  blanket,  or  other  safe  place.  The 
messenger  should  understand  that  his  message  may  be 
shown  to  other  commanders  of  our  troops,  met  by  him  en 
route  to  his  own,  if  the  information  contained  is  such  as 
to  be  of  value  to  them. 

64.  Instruct  all  men  that  if  captured  they  should 
not  talk.  Attempting  to  give  false  information  is  dan- 
gerous, changed  plans  may  have  made  it  true.  If  a 
messenger,  try  to  protect  your  message  from  capture, 
destroying  it  if  necessary. 

65.  At  maneuvers  play  the  game  fairly,  and  conduct 


RETURN  ROUTE  311 

yourself  as  nearly  as  possible  as  you  would  in  actual  ser- 
vice. It  is  most  difficult  to  make  conditions  real,  particu- 
larly in  the  matter  of  patrols  gaining  information.  Men 
are  so  daring  when  facing  blank  ammunition  only,  and 
umpires  cannot  be  on  the  ground  to  rule  in  each  individual 
case.  Gaining  information  by  procedures  which  would 
be  absurd  in  the  face  of  bullets,  is  not  particularly  credit- 
able, nor  does  its  practice  give  you  any  beneficial  training. 
If  captured,  conduct  yourself  as  you  would  in  war.  Do 
not  warn  your  companions  by  shouting,  when  you  must 
realize  that  in  war  time  such  conduct  would  cost  you  your 
life.    If  paroled  observe  your  parole  honorably. 

66.  Having  completed  your  mission,  there  are  two 
reasons  why  it  is  better  not  to  return  over  the  same  route, 
— to  avoid  ambuscade,  and  to  widen  your  field  of  recon- 
naissance, familiarizing  yourself  with  just  so  much  more 
ground. 

67.  In  general  a  good  patrol  leader  is  an  exceptional 
man.  He  should  combine  the  qualities  of  good  health, 
vigorous  physique,  good  eyesight,  presence  of  mind  and 
courage,  with  military  training,  experience,  and  above  all, 
with  good  judgment  and  loyalty.  He  must  be  able  to  read 
maps  and  to  send  clear,  concise  messages.  He  should  have 
such  military  education  as  will  enable  him  to  view  the 
given  situation  as  to  its  military  meaning  from  the  stand- 
point of  his  commanding  officer,  and  to  report  accord- 
ingly. He  should  also  be  able  to  make  a  route  sketch  of 
the  country  he  has  to  cover ;  while  ability  to  make  even  a 
rough  position  sketch  would  add  to  the  value  of  a  report 
of  the  enemy  in  position. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SECURITY 

I.  This  chapter  is  designed  to  make  more  clear  to  sub- 
ordinates the  subjects  treated  in  Article  II,  Field  Service 
Regulations.  Being  discussed  therein  largely  for  higher 
commanders,  it  seems  advisable  to  bring  out  more  clearly 
the  points  of  particular  interest  to  the  members  of  a  com- 
pany. It  is  not  intended  however,  that  this  shall  replace 
entirely  a  study  of  the  Regulations  themselves,  particu- 
larly for  the  officers,  who  will  find  there  much  additional 
matter  worthy  their  attention.  It  is  hoped  rather  to  give 
such  a  picture  of  this  phase  of  military  work,  that  each 
member  of  the  company  may  find  himself  taking  an  in- 
telligent interest  in  whatever  part  he  is  detailed  to  take  in 
this  class  of  work. 

3.  Frederick  the  Great  says,  "  It  is  pardonable  to  be 
defeated,  but  never  to  be  surprised."  And  this  surprise  is 
avoided  by  taking  proper  measures  for  security.  This 
should  always  be  done  in  campaigning  whenever  the 
barest  possibility  exists  of  an  enemy  being  in  your  vicinity. 
Had  past  commanders  always  observed  this  how  differ- 
ently would  read  our  military  history. 

3.  Security  for  the  command  in  the  field  is  obtained  by 
covering  detachments;  on  the  march  these  detachments  are 
the  advance  guard,  flank  guard,  rear  guard,  or  march  out- 
posts, using  one  or  all  as  necessity  requires.  When  in  camp, 
the  covering  detachment  is  called  an  outpost.  Your  in- 
dividual duties  in  connection  with  these  are  purely  those 
of  reconnaissance.  They  differ  from  your  work  in  patrol- 
ling only  in  that  your  action  must  be  more  aggressive. 
While  it  is  still  your  duty  to  discover  the  enemy  and  learn 
his  strength,  your  commanding  ofiicer  is  in  your  more 
immediate  vicinity  and  will  need  this  information  almost 
instantly.  You  have  got  to  break  in  boldly  and  find  out 
what  you  are  up  against  at  once  in  order  not  to  allow 
312 


THE  ADVANCE  GUARD  313 

inferior  parties  to  delay  him  or  occasion  unnecessary 
concern ;  and  if  the  enemy  be  in  force  so  that  conflict  is 
imminent,  every  additional  moment  you  can  give  him  for 
observation  and  preparation  is  of  the  utmost  value.  Greater 
boldness,  therefore,  will  here  characterize  your  work, 
which,  if  the  enemy  be  met,  will  be  sure  to  include  sharp, 
determined  fighting. 

4.  While  your  individual  work  is  that  of  reconnais- 
sance, still  it  is  important  that  you  have  a  clear  mental 
picture  of  the  formations  and  workings  of  these  various 
covering  detachments,  in  order  that  you  may  conduct  your 
part  intelligently.  We  will  take  them  in  turn,  considering 
them  in  connection  with  small  commands,  where  the  same 
principles  apply  and  are  more  easily  understood. 

5.  The  advance  guard,  as  its  name  implies,  covers 
the  head  and  flanks  of  a  column  advancing  in  the  direction 
the  enemy  is  supposed  to  be.  Its  size  and  dispositions  are 
determined  by  the  supreme  commander  depending  upon 
his  mission,  the  terrain,  the  dispositions  of  the  enemy,  and 
whether  likely  to  be  attacked  by  artillery  or  not.  It  is 
always  formed  in  separate  detachments  along  the  line  of 
march,  these  detachments  increasing  in  size  from  front  to 
rear,  each  a  support  for  the  one  next  ahead,  and  separated 
by  such  distances  that  each  in  turn  will  have  time  for 
deployment  before  it  becomes  involved,  after  the  preced- 
ing one  gets  contact  with  the  enerny.  These  detachments 
are  named  respectively  the  advance  party,  which  invari- 
ably sends  a  patrol  well  to  the  front  called  the  point;  next 
the  support,  and  lastly  the  reserve.  The  reserve  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  main  body  by  sufficient  distance  to  allow 
the  latter  to  deploy,  and  yet  near  enough  to  admit  its  timely 
arrival  in  support.  The  reserve  is  not  used  with  the 
advance  guards  of  small  commands  like  a  squadron  or 
regiment.  A  single  troop  generally  uses  a  point  only, 
though  its  mission  might  possibly  require  an  advance  party. 

6.  Protection  on  the  flank  is  afforded  by  the  work  of 
reconnoitering  patrols.  These  patrols  are  sent  out  from 
the  advance  party,  which  should  be  commanded  by  a  com- 


314  SECURITY 

missioned  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to  discover  the  possible 
presence  of  any  enemy  within  effective  rifle  range  on  either 
flank  of  the  column.  In  rare  cases  the  conditions  of  the 
terrain  are  such  that  this  may  be  done  by  the  patrol  going 
out  to  the  flank  and  marching  along  practically  parallel  to 
the  column.  As  a  rule  this  is  impracticable,  and  very 
often  unnecessary.  Wherever  the  country  can  be  viewed 
to  sufficient  distance  from  the  column,  no  patrol  will  be 
sent  out.  Where  the  country  affords  cover  that  might 
conceal  the  enemy,  a  patrol  must  be  sent  out  to  investigate 
this  cover.  The  commander  of  the  advance  party  con- 
stantly consults  his  map  and  looks  ahead  for  such  condi- 
tions. Upon  recognizing  the  presence  of  a  jwint  needing 
investigation,  he  would  call  a  patrol  leader  to  his  side, 
point  ahead  to  the  locality  to  be  reconnoitered,  tell  him 
what  man  or  men  to  take  with  him,  where  to  go,  how  long 
to  remain,  and  how  to  rejoin.  This  patrol  would  leave 
as  directed  by  the  lieutenant,  go  ahead  to  the  designated 
objective,  execute  its  mission,  and  rejoin,  probably  at  the 
rear  of  the  advance  guard,  which  in  the  meantime  would 
undoubtedly  have  passed  this  point,  the  route  of  the  patrol 
thus  forming  a  loop. 

7.  By  continually  sending  out  these  reconnoitering 
patrols  to  the  flanks  the  lieutenant  exhausts  the  strength  of 
the  advance  party,  his  patrols  returning  either  to  the 
reserve  or  support.  As  the  support  commander  notices 
the  depletion  of  the  advance  party,  he  reinforces  it  with  a 
squad  or  two  as  necessary.  Thus  fresh  men  and  horses 
are  fed  in  to  do  the  patrolling,  and  this  arduoous  work 
more  equally  distributed  among  the  men  of  the  company. 

8.  The  point  should  be  thought  of  only  as  the  leading 
patrol.  Better  that  it  were  named  that  only,  as  so  many 
leaders  seem  to  have  an  idea  that  it  is  to  be  formed  com- 
pactly as  a  point  with  one  man  out  in  front  and  thus 
marched.  In  reality  it  should  be  conducted  exactly  as  an 
independent  patrol  working  over  this  given  route,  but  more 
aggressively ;  concealment  is  sacrificed  to  speed  and 
thoroughness. 


DUTIES  OF  ADVANCE  GUARD  315 

9.  The  position  of  the  commanding  officer  of  the  ad- 
vance guard  is  designated  at  the  head  of  his  reserve,  if  he 
have  one.  Even  so,  he  will  generally  be  found  nearer  the 
support.  And  the  support  commander  will  generally  be 
found  near  the  advance  party.  An  aggressive  leader,  and 
none  other  will  succeed  in  advance  guard  work,  wants  to 
be  up  where  he  can  learn  at  first  hand  any  information  of 
the  enemy,  ready  to  take  bold,  decisive  action  without 
delay.  He  can  control  his  command  in  rear  by  visual 
signals,  and  avoid  becoming  involved  with  his  men,  keep- 
ing out  by  himself  where  he  can  see  and  hear  and  size 
up  the  situation  as  he  directs  the  action. 

10.  Regulations  provide  for  maintaining  communica- 
tion between  the  subdivisions  of  the  advance  guard  by  a 
chain  of  individuals  known  as  connecting  files.  While 
conditions  might  arise  to  render  their  presence  valuable, 
in  the  general  case  the  fewer  they  be  in  number  the 
greater  advantage  to  efficiency.  Especially  in  a  small  ad- 
vance guard  composed  of  a  single  company,  it  is  only 
reasonable  that  the  various  detachment  leaders  should 
have  such  mutual  understanding  and  training  in  team 
work  that  they  can  play  the  game  harmoniously  without 
the  rigidity  of  these  connecting  files,  and  without  depleting 
reconnoitering  and  fighting  forces  by  dispersing  so  much 
of  their  strength  ineffectually  along  the  road.  The  de- 
velopment of  visual  signalling  in  training  will  be  of  great 
help  towards  this  desired  end. 

11.  The  primary  duty  of  an  advance  guard  is  to  insure 
the  safe  and  uninterrupted  advance  of  the  main  body. 

Specifically  its  duties  are : 

(a)  To  take  the  right  road  and  make  it  passable. 

(b)  To  guard  against  surprise  and  furnish  informa- 
tion by  reconnoitering  to  the  front  and  flanks. 

(c)  To  push  back  small  parties  of  the  enemy  and  pre- 
vent their  observing,  firing  upon,  or  delaying  the  main 
body. 

(d)  When  the  enemy  is  encountered  on  the  defensive, 
to  seize  a  good  position  and  locate  his  lines,  care  being 


316  SECURITY 

taken  not  to  bring  on  a  general  engagement  unless  the 
advance  guard  is  empowered  to  do  so. 

(e)  To  hold  the  enemy  advancing  in  force  while  our 
supreme  commander  has  time  to  make  proper  reconnais- 
sance and  his  desired  dispositions. 

12.  The  distance  at  which  the  advance  guard  precedes 
the  main  body,  or  at  which  the  main  body  follows  the  ad- 
vance guard,  is  stated  in  the  "march  order."  In  small 
bodies  the  advance  guard  generally  regulates  its  march  on 
the  main  body,  and  the  advance  guard  commander  must 
make  such  provision  as  to  ensure  keeping  this  distance 
within  reasonable  limits. 

13.  Troops  on  the  service  of  security  pay  no  compli- 
ments. Individuals  salute  only  when  they  address  or  are 
addressed  by  a  superior  officer.  Mounted  messengers  do 
not  salute  or  change  their  gait  upon  meeting  an  officer  or 
passing  him,  unless  addressed.  Civilians  are  not  permitted 
to  precede  the  advance  guard.  Deserters,  suspicious  char- 
acters, and  bearers  of  flags  of  truce,  the  latter  blindfolded, 
are  taken  to  the  immediate  commander. 

14.  In  conducting  the  reconnaissance,  the  patrols  are, 
as  a  rule,  small — from  two  to  six  men.  While  patrol 
leaders  in  general  cannot  be  detailed  by  roster,  only 
specially  qualified  men  being  worthy  of  this  trust,  these 
reconnoitering  patrols  sent  from  covering  detachments 
can  generally  be  led  by  any  man  of  reasonable  intelligence 
and  training.  Even  here,  in  case  of  an  important  flank 
patrol  that  is  to  go  out  some  distance,  perhaps  to  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  column  by  an  impassable  obstacle  for  a 
short  distance,  and  likely  to  meet  conditions  requiring 
initiative,  responsibility  and  good  judgment,  care  must  be 
taken  in  the  selection  of  the  patrol  leader  and  in  determin- 
ing the  size  of  his  patrol.  Your  best  patrol  leader  should 
be  in  command  of  the  point. 

15.  Normal  Formations. — The  natural  tendency, 
almost  irresistible  with  too  many  officers,  is  to  attempt  to 
take  what  they  have  come  to  believe  to  be  the  normal 
formation  for  the  advance  guard.     This  is  a  natural  out- 


GETTING  CONTACT  317 

come  of  the  study  of  many  of  our  books,  particularly  the 
old  Cavalry  Drill  Regulations.  The  only  value  of  these 
normal  formations  is  their  helpfulness  in  making  one 
understand  the  tactical  principles  involved  in  the  use  of 
covering  detachments.  To  attempt  to  apply  them  in  every 
case  often  results  in  absurdity.  It  is  rather  for  the  guard 
commander  to  study  his  mission,  the  conditions  that  sur- 
round it,  the  forces  at  his  disposal  and  then  to  apply  com- 
mon sense  and  the  underlying  principles  to  his  best 
solution  of  the  case  in  hand. 

i6.  Getting  Contact. — If  the  point  come  under  fire, 
the  advance  party  commander,  if  not  already  there,  should 
hasten  up  to  take  charge  of  the  situation,  holding  his  party 
at  such  point  under  cover  as  will  enable  him  to  use  it  to 
the  best  advantage.  He  must  take  quick  action  to  see 
what  is  opposing  him.  Remember  that  the  firing  will  be 
heard  down  the  column  and  your  commanding  officer  anx- 
iously awaiting  information.  You  must  get  it  for  him,  and 
then  get  it  to  him  with  the  utmost  speed.  Yours  is  dan- 
gerous work  and  will  require  great  courage  and  daring. 
Good  soldiers  are  eager  for  duty  with  the  point. 

Too  often  the  first  message  that  comes  back  from  the 
point  is,  "  The  enemy  is  in  sight,"  or,  "  We  have  struck  the 
enemy."  How  absurd !  The  firing  has  probably  given 
that  information  already.  The  only  additional  informa- 
tion derived  from  such  a  message  is  confirmation  of  the 
patrol  leader's  stupidity.  Do  not  join  this  class.  Burst  in 
and  find  out  how  much  of  an  enemy  he  is.  Then  you  can 
report  facts  of  value — his  strength,  dispositions,  etc. 

17.  A  flank  patrol  discovering  the  presence  of  the 
enemy  would  indicate  it  at  once  by  visual  signals  to  the 
nearest  commanding  officer  in  the  column,  who,  especially 
if  the  patrol  be  attacked,  must  be  prompt  to  take  control 
of  the  situation,  conducting  it  as  the  commanding  officer 
of  the  advance  party  in  like  case. 

18.  You  are  cautioned  against  taking  such  action 
as  to  involve  the  command  in  an  engagement,  unless  the 
mission  is  such  as  unquestionably  to  demand  it.     Even 


S18  SECURITY 

then  it  should  be  for  the  supreme  commander  to  choose 
the  exact  ground  and  time  for  engaging,  if  you  can  pos- 
sibly hold  the  situation  in  hand,  so  as  to  give  him 
opportunity  to  do  it. 

19.  Open  country  often  offers  an  opportunity  to 
save  men  and  horses  by  keeping  the  flank  patrols  out, 
advancing  generally  parallel  to  the  column  instead  of  loop- 
ing back  as  required  in  close  country.  In  any  case  a 
flank  patrol  having  been  sent  out  to  reconnoiter  a  given 
point,  seeing  a  need  for  further  reconnaissance  just  ahead, 
and  able  to  communicate  with  his  chief  by  signal,  should 
point  ahead  and  look  for  a  signal  to  continue,  or  return, 
as  the  lieutenant  decided  best. 

20.  All  this  reconnaissance  work  offers  an  effective 
field  for  the  use  of  visual  signalling,  and  in  peace  practice 
occasion  should  be  made  for  communicating  with  your 
patrols  and  controlling  them  by  these  signals. 

21.  Flank  Guards. — Your  individual  work  in  these 
does  not  differ  materially  from  the  above.  While  the 
flanks  of  a  column  are  protected  to  a  degree  by  the  ad- 
vance guard,  in  a  special  case,  it  may  be  necessary  to  pro- 
vide additional  security  for  a  flank  threatened  by  the 
enemy.  This  is  done  by  sending  a  detachment  called  a 
flank  guard  to  cover  it.  It  may  be  a  patrol  only,  or  a 
large  organization.  It  keeps  in  constant  touch  with  the 
column  by  signals  or  by  mounted  messengers.  It  may 
march  generally  parallel  to,  and  abreast  of,  the  element 
from  which  detailed,  or  it  may  occupy  a  favorable  position 
and  hold  it  until  the  whole  column  has  passed.  In  the 
latter  case  it  would  join  the  rear  guard  for  the  remainder 
of  the  march,  rejoining  its  command  upon  reaching  camp. 

22.  Rear  Guards. — Even  when  advancing  sup- 
posedly toward  the  enemy,  the  possibility  of  being  attacked 
in  rear  generally  exists,  and  is  guarded  against  by  a  cover- 
ing detachment,  known  as  the  rear  guard.  This  will  be 
relatively  weak  during  an  advance.  It  is  formed  and 
marched  in  the  reverse  order  to  an  advance  guard,  the 
point  coming  last. 


MARCH  OUTPOSTS  319 

23.  In  a  retreat,  especially  before  a  pursuing  force, 
its  functions  become  vital,  and  it  is  relatively  stronger 
than  an  advance  guard.  Its  principal  function  being  to 
protect  the  column  from  molestation,  if  the  enemy  is 
aggressive,  its  chief  work  will  be  fighting.  The  method 
of  procedure  is  to  occupy  successively  positions  which  the 
enemy  must  capture  in  order  to  continue  the  pursuit,  hold- 
ing them  as  long  as  necessary  to  give  the  main  column 
freedom  of  movement,  and  not  retiring  from  them  sooner 
except  as  a  last  resort.  This  may  call  for  desperate  fight- 
ing, and  quick  arduous  work  in  moving  from  one  position 
to  the  next.  In  general  the  method  is  to  hold  each  position 
until  your  ability  to  get  away  is  endangered,  and  then  to 
withdraw  by  sections  under  the  covering  fire  of  the  others. 
Meantime  reconnaissance  has  chosen  the  next  position, 
and  the  first  troops  withdrawn  are  the  first  to  occupy  it 
and  to  open  fire.  Where  the  enemy  is  not  too  aggressive, 
sufficient  delay  may  be  gained  by  simply  forcing  him  to 
deploy  into  the  attack  formation,  and  then  withdrawing 
into  the  next  position,  where  you  will  repeat  these  tactics. 
This  may  result  in  such  carelessness  on  his  part  that  you 
will  be  given  an  opportunity  to  strike  a  telling  blow.  When 
so  ordered,  the  rear  guard  may  further  delay  the  enemy 
by  placing  obstacles  in  his  path,  destroying  bridges,  etc. 
As  the  enemy's  pursuit  will  likely  be  on  a  broad  front  with 
a  view  to  reaching  the  flanks  of  our  retreating  column, 
rear  guard  work  will  require  wide  reconnaissance  by  the 
flank  patrols. 

24.  March  Outposts. — No  body  of  troops  however 
small  should  ever  rest  or  halt  in  any  situation  no  matter 
for  how  short  a  time  without  having  men  in  observation 
of  every  possible  line  of  approach,  whence  the  enemy 
might  surprise  them.  This  provision  is  so  simple  of  exe- 
cution, and  its  nonobservance  has  so  often  led  to  disaster ! 
It  applies  to  a  patrol,  to  an  army,  and  to  every  intermediate 
command.  If  you  stop  to  water,  to  feed,  or  just  to  rest, 
it  is  equally  important.  They  are  the  combat  patrols  of 
battle,  and  the  outposts  of  bivouac. 


320  SECURITY 

25.  The  duty  is  one  of  reconnaissance.  It  is  a  posi- 
tion of  grave  responsibility,  and  all  should  be  taught  to 
regard  it  seriously. 

26.  If  the  supreme  commander  has  evidently  over- 
looked it,  'subordinate  commanders  should  act  indepen- 
dently in  sending  out  these  sentinels.  They  must  be 
pushed  out  far  enough  to  give  timely  warning  of  any 
possible  approach  by  the  enemy. 

27.  Outposts. — Duties  of  an  outpost  may  be 
summed  up  in  reconnaissance,  observation,  and  resistance. 
Its  specific  duties  are,  ist :  To  give  such  protection  as  will 
allow  the  remainder  of  the  command  a  chance  for  undis- 
turbed rest.  2d :  To  prevent  the  enemy's  reconnaissance 
of  our  main  body,  or  even  of  our  outpost  line  and  disposi- 
tions if  possible.  3d:  In  case  of  attack,  to  give  timely 
warning  of  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  and  in  any  event  to 
hold  him  in  check  long  enough  to~  enable  the  main  body  to 
make  the  desired  dispositions  for  the  fight. 

28.  Former  conceptions  of  this  duty  were  satisfied 
by  a  static  guard,  which  was  simply  on  the  alert  to  meet  the 
enemy  when  he  appeared.  This  idea  is  changing;  more 
and  more  the  work  of  the  outpost  is  performed  by  patrol- 
ling, the  number  of  sentinels  being  greatly  reduced  thereby. 

29.  Like  other  covering  detachments,  the  outpost 
has  its  reserve,  line  of  supports,  and  line  of  advance 
parties,  in  this  case  called  outguards.  It  differs  in  that 
these  detachments  are  in  position  rather  than  marching. 
Covering  each  flank  as  well  as  the  front  toward  the  enemy, 
it  takes  a  form  as  though  three  or  four  advance  guards  had 
radiated  from  a  central  reserve  and  halted,  with  their  sup- 
ports generally  occupying  positions  on  or  near  a  convex 
line  offering  the  best  position  for  a  defensive  action,  while 
the  outguards  (the  advance  parties)  occupy  the  best  points 
for  observation  in  the  direction  of  the  enemy,  generally 
considerably  advanced.  Thus  the  general  form  of  an  out- 
post in  position  is  fan  shaped  toward  the  enemy. 

30.  The  outpost  problem  is  always  a  bugbear  to  the 
student.     This  is  because  there  are  generally  several  good 


OUTPOST  821 

solutions,  the  correctness  of  any  one  being  dependent  upon 
the  condition  that  it  meet  the  Hne  of  attack  which  the 
enemy  may  choose  to  make.  There  is  the  difficulty,  where 
will  the  enemy  appear,  when  will  he  appear,  and  with  what 
strength  and  intentions?  By  taking  a  static  condition  in 
camp  the  supreme  commander  has  temporarily  sacrificed 
the  value  of  initiative,  except  in  that  he  has  selected  the 
ground  on  which  he  hopes  to  fight  defensively  if  attacked. 
To  secure  this  is  the  outpost  commander's  problem,  which 
he  tries  to  solve  in  making  his  dispositions,  and  to  antici- 
pate by  patrolling  therefrom. 

31.  While  you  will  not  have  to  choose  an  outpost 
position,  nor  determine  its  entire  dispositions,  you  may 
have  to  march  your  group  out  as  one  of  the  supports, 
select  its  proper  position  in  your  assigned  sector,  properly 
locate  and  instruct  your  outguards,  and  make  the  proper 
arrangements  for  mutual  communication  and  support. 
This  will  require  a  detailed  knowledge  of  outpost  duties, 
and  yours  will  be  far  more  intelligently  performed  if  you 
have  a  clear  conception  of  the  whole  subject.  So  while 
there  is  given  herein  what  you  must  know,  you  may  well 
take  time  to  read  over  the  whole  subject  more  in  detail  as 
given  in  Field  Service  Regulations. 

32.  General  Considerations, — The  vigilance  of  out- 
post troops  must  be  unceasing.  They  should  avoid  trying 
to  bring  on  a  combat.  They  must  avoid  alarming  the 
command  unnecessarily.  Their  raison  d'etre  is  to  give 
their  fellows  in.  camp  opportunity  for  undisturbed  rest. 
Rifle  firing  should  be  indulged  only  as  a  last  resort.  It 
not  only  disturbs  rest  but  betrays  your  position,  probably 
the  sole  object  of  the  enemy  at  the  time.  No  trumpet  sig- 
nals ejtcept  to  arms  or  to  horse,  are  sounded,  and  all  un- 
necessary noises  are  avoided.  Countersigns  are  used  in 
the  field  in  exceptional  cases  only.  If  it  is  desired  that  you 
annoy  or  deceive  the  enemy,  the  superior  commander  will 
give  the  necessary  orders. 

33.  Where  cavalry  is  working  with  other  arms  the 
troop  or  squadron  assigned  to  outpost  duty  would  form 

21 


822  SECURITY 

what  is  known  as  advance  cavalry.  Its  work  would  be 
that  of  recpnnoitering  patrols  well  out  to  the  front  during 
the  daytime.  At  night  you  will  be  withdrawn  behind  the 
lines,  into  bivouac  with  the  reserve,  where  your  horses 
may  be  properly  fed  and  rested.  A  few  individuals  might 
be  kept  on  duty  as  mounted  messengers ;  it  might  even  be 
wise  to  use  certain  patrols  for  communication.  The  use 
of  mounted  patrols  for  reconnaissance  in  the  night  time  is 
considered  poor  policy.  It  not  only  quickly  knocks  up  the 
horses,  but  they  are  of  less  value  than  dismounted  men, 
since  the  noise  of  the  horses  must  always  give  timely  warn- 
ing to  the  enemy.  Where  a  mounted  patrol  is  sent  to  some 
distant  point  to  reconnoiter  in  the  night  time,  it  should 
approach  reasonably  near,  dismount,  and,  leaving  the 
horses  with  a  horseholder  in  concealment,  proceed  on  foot. 
'  For  all  these  duties  you  need  apply  only  the  general 
principles  of  patrolling. 

34.  When  the  cavalry  is  operating  alone  and  must 
form  its  own  outpost,  then  you  become  part  of  the  outpost 
proper,  and  have  to  apply  the  principles  of  outpost  duty. 
When  an  independent  cavalry  command  forms  its  own 
outpost  for  its  own  protection,  authorities  are  agreed  that 
it  should  be  formed  generally  dismounted,  as  an  infantry 
outpost,  the  horses  resting  in  camp  ;  or,  in  large  commands, 
with  the  outpost  reserve.  This  is  particularly  true  for  the 
night  time.  Without  proper  rest  for  the  horses  at  night, 
cavalry  will  soon  be  dismounted  through  their  breakdown ; 
and  while  being  dismounted  lessens  their  outpost  distances 
materially,  and  lets  the  enemy  get  that  much  nearer  them 
unobserved,  night  attacks  are  exceptional,  and  they  can 
well  afford  the  additional  risk  for  the  sake  of  having  their 
horses  in  good  condition  for  the  next  day's  work.  Where 
the  cavalry,  as  in  screening,  forms  an  extended  outpost  for 
the  main  body,  distances  must  be  increased,  and  the  horses 
kept  even  with  the  outguards.  The  questions  of  feeding, 
watering,  and  getting  the  most  rest  possible  then  become 
prime  considerations  for  all  officers  in  charge. 

35.  Selection  of  Outpost  Position. — The  position  of 


i 


SELECTION  OF  SUPPORT  POSITION       323 

the  camp  is  generally  fixed  by  considerations  of  water  sup- 
ply, etc.  It  then  remains  to  select  the  best  available 
ground  and  dispositions  to  protect  this  camp.  These 
having  been  decided  upon,  and  the  troops  detailed  for  the 
outpost,  they  are  marched  out  by  the  outpost  commander 
to  the  approximate  position  for  the  reserve.  He  divides 
his  whole  front  into  sectors,  defined  by  natural  objects  in 
the  terrain,  assigning  each  sector  to  a  group  called  a 
support,  which  he  details  to  guard  it.  The  sectors  are  so 
chosen  that  the  natural  position  for  the  support  will  be  a 
reasonably  strong  defensive  position,  and  located  on  or 
near  one  of  the  likely  avenues  of  approach  by  the  enemy. 
Each  sector  is  described  as  from  such  and  such  an  object 
inclusive  or  exclusive  to  such  and  such  an  object  inclusive 
or  exclusive. 

36.  This  sector  becomes  the  field  of  operations  for 
the  support  commander.  Your  instructions  probably  in- 
clude a  direction  that  you  locate  your  support  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  designated  point.  You  march  your  command 
to  this  point  with  small  covering  detachments  of  your  own 
guarding  your  front  and  flanks.  These  covering  detach- 
ments will  halt  in  self-chosen  points  of  observation,  as  a 
march  outpost  for  the  support,  while  you  are  selecting  its 
exact  position,  and  determining  the  positions  and  composi- 
tion of  your  outguards.  During  this  time  be  sure  that 
friendly  patrols  are  well  out  in  your  front — even  if  you 
have  to  send  them. 

37.  This  is  your  next  question,  how  best  to  employ  the 
strength  at  your  disposal  in  covering  the  sector  assigned 
you.  You  will  study  this  problem  and  solve  it  according 
to  your  best  judgment,  keeping  in  mind  the  interdepen- 
dence between  you  and  the  supports  to  your  right  and  left. 
The  outpost  commander  himself  will  soon  be  along  to 
inspect  your  dispositions,  and  perhaps  to  change  them. 

38.  The  consideration  to  govern  your  exact  location 
of  the  support  will  be  a  good  defensive  position  near  the 
station  of  the  support,  to  be  occupied,  in  case  of  attack. 
This  should  have  a  good  view  and  field  of  fire  to  the  front, 


324  SECURITY 

with  concealment  and  shelter  from  the  enemy's  fire.  In 
the  general  case  you  will  have  to  remove  some  obstructions 
to  get  this  field  of  fire,  and  intrench  more  or  less  to  get 
proper  shelter.  There  should  be  good  communications  to 
the  rear  and  good  lateral  communications  between  you  and 
the  neighboring  supports.  You  may  have  to  open  up 
these  communications  to  some  extent. 

39.  The  points  of  observation,  where  the  outguards 
will  be  located,  are  your  next  consideration,  and  are  chosen 
to  give  the  greatest  extent  of  view  practicable ;  it  may  be 
that  the  country  is  so  open  that  one  man  in  observation 
can  see  all  possible  avenues  of  approach.  More  likely 
you  will  find  so  much  cover  in  your  front  that  you  will 
want  to  station  sentinels  every  few  yards  in  order  to  cover 
it.  This  of  course  is  impracticable,  and  you  must  pick 
the  most  likely  lines  of  approach  for  stationary  posts,  and 
arrange  to  cover  the  less  likely  areas  with  patrols.  Each 
sentinel  post  you  arrange  for  will  require  three  men  and 
a  corporal  if  a  single  sentinel,  if  a  double  sentinel  post  eight 
men.  Your  smallest  patrol  would  be  two  men ;  this  calls 
for  six  men  detailed  for  each  patrol.  You  must  have  at 
least  one  sentinel  on  guard  at  the  support  watching  for 
signals  from  the  outguards ;  three  more  men.  You  will 
find  that  you  have  quickly  exhausted  the  strength  of  your 
command,  and  will  despair  of  guarding  your  sector  with 
so  few  men.  Be  sure  you  use  what  you  have  to  the  best 
advantage. 

40.  For  the  purpose  of  observation  only,  especially 
in  the  daytime,  a  single  sentinel  at  the  outguard  is  enough. 
This  is  arranged  for  by  detailing  a  cossack  post,  a  noncom- 
missioned officer  and  one  relief  of  three  men.  At  this 
post  the  sentinel  is  stationed,  if  possible  in  concealment, 
but  always  where  he  can  get  the  best  field  of  view ;  and 
the  corporal  and  two  men  take  a  position  in  concealment 
within  easy  communicating  distance,  not  more  than  thirty 
or  forty  feet  from  him. 

Where  danger  is  great,  and  especially  in  the  nighttime, 
and  where  it  is  desired  to  be  able  to  oflfer  some  resistance, 


OCCUPYING  SUPPORT  POSITION  325 

a  stronger  outguard  is  stationed  with  two  sentinels  work- 
ing in  unison  both  on  duty  together.  This  is  known  as 
a  double  sentinel  post.  It  calls  for  eight  men — the  non- 
commissioned officer  in  charge,  the  six  men  for  sentinels 
and  one  man  for  a  messenger.  These  two  sentinels  are 
stationed  within  easy  speaking  distance  of  each  other, 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  are  expected  to  communicate 
and  assist  each  other  in  the  performance  of  their  duty. 

41.  A  sentinel  should  never  be  mounted.  The  horse 
would  betray  his  presence  by  his  movements,  and  a  sentinel 
should  secure  concealment  by  immobility.  He  may  climb 
a  tree  or  other  object  to  gain  greater  altitude  if  desired. 

42.  Your  dispositions  must  be  made  in  ample  time 
for  everyone  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  various  lines 
of  communication,  and  particularly  for  all  the  men  detailed 
for  patrolling  to  go  over  their  routes  and  familiarize  them- 
selves with  their  details  before  dark.  It  is  also  important 
that  every  preparation  for  defense  be  completed  in  day- 
light. This  may  include  placing  some  obstruction  like  a 
barbed  wire  entanglement  at  such  point  on  the  avenue  of 
approach  as  will  hold  the  enemy  there  under  your  fire  in 
case  of  attack.  In  this  case  each  individual  should 
arrange  in  daylight  for  laying  his  rifle  so  it  will  fire  into 
this  point.  Then  he  may  hope  to  do  it  successfully  in  the 
dark  Machine  guns  aimed  and  clamped  are  particularly 
valuable  for  this  use. 

43.  Your  instructions  have  included  directions  as 
to  what  is  to  be  done  in  case  of  attack,  where  the  main 
line  of  resistance  will  be  held,  whether  the  supports  are 
to  be  reinforced  and  hold  their  line  until  the  main  body 
may  come  up,  or  whether  they  will  hold  only  so  long,  and 
then  withdraw  to  another  position.  Knowing  the  general 
scheme,  you  can  instruct  your  outguards  as  to  the  amount 
of  resistance  they  are  to  offer,  and  along  what  lines  they 
are  to  withdraw,  and  can  intelligently  plan  for  the  conduct 
of  your  own  support. 

44.  As  you  develop  your  situation  you  will  prob- 
ably find  yourself  filled  with  uncertainty  and  frequent 


326  SECURITY 

temptations  to  change  your  dispositions.  Realize  that  you 
cannot  possibly  cover  every  point  and  contingency,  so 
come  to  a  definite  solution  as  soon  as  possible,  and  then 
stick  to  it,  unless  you  later  find  you  are  seriously  in  error. 
So  many  details  must  be  seen  to  before  dark,  and  you 
must  not  impress  the  men  with  your  own  uncertainty.  As 
soon  as  your  plan  is  definite,  the  first  thing  is  to  see  that 
every  man  in  your  command  is  made  familiar  with  the 
whole  situation,  and  particularly  with  his  individual  duties 
in  connection  therewith.  You  must  inspect  in  detail  all 
dispositions  and  elements  of  your  command. 

45.  The  men  at  the  support  may  stack  arms  and 
remove  their  equipment,  excepting  the  cartridge  belts. 
The  question  of  fires  and  cooking  at  the  supports  will  be 
determined  by  the  outpost  commander.  He  determines 
how  the  men  are  rationed  and  how  the  horses  are  watered 
and  fed. 

46.  Outguards. — These  are  the  cossack  and  double 
sentinel  posts,  commanded  by  noncommissioned  officers, 
who  march  them  out  and  select  their  exact  positions,  as  the 
support  commander  did  his,  subject  to  correction  by  the 
latter  at  his  first  inspection.  Their  duty  is  to  maintain 
uninterrupted  observation  of  the  ground  in  front  and 
on  the  flank ;  to  report  promptly  any  hostile  movement  or 
other  information  of  the  enemy ;  to  prevent  unauthorized 
persons  crossing  the  line  of  observation ;  to  drive  off 
smaller  parties  of  the  enemy  attempting  to  penetrate  the 
line,  and  generally  to  make  temporary  resistance  to  larger 
bodies. 

47.  Concealment  is  next  important  to  observation. 
The  line  of  observation  is  not  necessarily  continuous,  but 
each  outguard  must  know  the  location  of  the  outguard  on 
its  right  and  left,  and  sends  patrols  for  this  information 
when  necessary. 

48.  Patrolling  to  the  front  is  done  from  the  support 
or,  if  to  any  considerable  distance,  from  the  reserve.  How- 
ever, an  outguard  would  send  a  patrol  at  once  to  assure 
itself  that  cover  in  its  immediate  front  was  not  occupied 


SENTINELS  327 

by  an  enemy,  rather  than  sit  down  with  the  possibility  of 
an  enemy  being  there  in  observation  all  the  time. 

49.  All  movements  of  patrols,  or  others,  to  and 
from  the  position  of  an  outguard,  should  be  made  from  the 
rear,  or  in  any  event  under  cover  from  observation  by  the 
enemy. 

50.  Outguards  for  each  support  are  numbered  from 
right  to  left,  as  the  supports  themselves  are  numbered. 
Each  outguard  is  then  known  as  number  so  and  so  of  such 
and  such  support. 

51.  Members  of  an  outguard  may  not  remove  their 
equipment,  and  keep  their  weapons  in  position  for  immedi- 
ate use.  Fires  are  not  permitted,  nor  anything  that  would 
betray  their  location. 

52.  Sentinels. — This  is  grave  duty  for  the  indivi- 
dual soldier  and  he  must  be  impressed  with  its  importance. 
He  must  exercise  ceaseless  vigilance  and,  especially  at 
night,  coolness  and  good  judgment.  His  tour  of  duty  is 
generally  two  hours  on  post  and  four  hours  off. 

His  post  must  be  carefully  selected  to  give  him  cover 
from  observation,  and  the.  best  facilities  for  seeing  and 
hearing.  He  will  generally  be  stationary,  as  an  aid  to  con- 
cealment, and  his  sense  of  duty  must  be  depended  upon  to 
keep  him  awake.  His  weapon  is  habitually  loaded  and 
locked  ready  for  instant  use. 

53.  The  instructions  given  a  sentinel  on  the  line  of 
observation  embrace  the  following,  and  these  should  be  a 
matter  of  common  knowledge  to  all  officers,  noncommis- 
sioned officers  and  soldiers: 

(a)  Where  the  enemy  is  or  is  supposed  to  be,  and  the 
direction  from  which  he  may  be  expected  to  come ;  the 
names  of  villages,  streams,  and  prominent  features  in 
sight  and  where  the  roads  lead. 

(b)  The  number  (if  any)  of  his  post,  and  the  num- 
ber of  his  and  of  the  adjoining  outguards;  the  position 
of  the  support;  the  line  of  retreat  to  be  followed  if  the 
outguard  is  compelled  to  fall  back ;  the  positions  of  any 
advance  detachments,  and  whether  friendly  patrols  are 
operating  in  front. 


328  SECURITY 

(c)  He  watches  to  the  front  and  flanks  without  inter- 
mission, and  devotes  especial  attention  to  unusual  or  sus- 
picious occurrences;  if  he  sees  indications  of  the  enemy, 
he  at  once  notifies  his  outguard  commander;  in  case  of 
imminent  danger,  or  when  an  attack  is  made,  he  gives  the 
alarm  by  firing  rapidly. 

(d)  By  day,  officers,  noncommissioned  officers  and 
detachments  recognized  as  part  of  tiie  outpost,  and  officers 
known  to  have  authority  to  do  so,  are  allowed  to  pass  in 
or  out;  all  others  are  detained  and  the  outguard  com- 
mander notified. 

(e)  At  night  when  persons  approach  his  post,  the 
sentinel  comes  to  a  ready,  halts  them,  and  notifies  the  out- 
guard commander;  the  latter  challenges,  ascertains  their 
identity,  and  acts  accordingly. 

(f)  Individuals  who  fail  to  halt,  or  otherwise  disobey 
a  sentinel,  are  fired  upon  after  a  second  warning,  or  sooner 
if  they  attempt  to  attack  or  escape. 

(g)  Deserters  are  required  to  lay  down  their  arms, 
and  a  patrol  is  sent  out  to  bring  them  in.  Deserters  pur- 
sued by  the  enemy  are  ordered  to  drop  their  arms  and 
the  alarm  is  given  ;  if  they  fail  to  obey  they  are  fired  upon. 

(h)  Bearers  of  flags  of  truce  and  their  escorts  are 
halted  and  required  to  face  outward  ;  they  are  then  blind- 
folded and  disposed  of  in  accordance  with  instructions 
from  the  support  commander  ;  if  they  fail  to  obey  they  are 
fired  upon.     No  conversation  with  them  is  permitted. 

54.  These  instructions  for  the  sentinel  on  outpost 
have  been  consolidated  into  the  following  form,  more  con- 
venient for  memorizing.  It  is  more  important  to  know 
these  orders  than  the  "  General  Orders "  of  interior 
guards. 
"FIRST:     About  myself  and  friendly  neighbors. 

"  My  post  is  number ,  outguard  number 

The  outguard  is  there.     The  post  on  my  right  is  number 

outguard  number ,  and  is  there.     The  post 

on  my  left  is  number ,  outguard  number  

and  is  there.     The  support  is  there.     Other  detachments 


SENTINELS  339 

are  there  and  there.    Such  and  such  patrols  are  operating 

in  my  front.     This  road  leads  to 

"  SECOND :     About  the  enemy. 

"  The  enemy  is  reported  to  be  there.  I  have  seen  him 
(describing  exactly  what  hostile  bodies  I  have  seen)  there; 
or,  I  have  not  seen  him.  I  am  to  watch  for  him  between 
there  and  there.  If  I  see  any  unusual  movement  I  am  to 
report  it  at  once  to  my  outguard  commander  who  is  there. 
If  suddenly  attacked  and  forced  to  retire  or  threatened 
with  capture,  I  shall  rejoin  my  outguard  by  going  around 
that  way  so  as  not  to  disclose  the  position  of  my  outguard 
to  the  enemy  or  to  mask  its  fire. 
"  THIRD :     How  to  conduct  myself  on  my  post. 

"  By  day  I  shall  make  the  best  use  possible  of  such 
natural  or  artificial  cover  as  is  available,  standing,  crouch- 
ing  or  lying  down,  and  remaining  stationary  or  moving 
about  as  will  enable  me  to  observe  the  sector  assigned  me 
to  watch  in  the  most  efficient  manner.  I  shall  carry  my 
piece  at  will,  loaded  and  locked.  I  shall  inform  passing 
friendly  patrols  of  what  I  have  seen. 

'.'  At  night  I  shall  remain  standing,  habitually  station- 
ary, moving  about  only  for  the  purposes  of  observation. 
I  shall  not  sit  or  lie  down  unless  authorized  to  do  so. 
"  FOURTH :     When  to  fire  on  the  enemy. 

"  Unless  specially  ordered  to  fire  on  the  enemy  when- 
ever seen  I  shall  fire  only  under  the  following  circum- 
stances: (a)  When  suddenly  attacked  and  there  is  no 
time  to  call  the  outguard  commander,  I  shall  fire  rapidly, 
but  with  careful  aim.  (b)  When  a  person  approaching 
my  post  is  ordered  to  halt  and  fails  to  do  so,  or  otherwise 
disobeys  me,  I  shall  fire  deliberately,  taking  careful  aim, 
so  as  to  be  sure  to  stop  him. 

"FIF'TH:     Treatment  of  individuals  approaching  my 
post. 

"  By  day  I  shall  allow  only  officers,  noncommissioned 
officers,  and  detachments  recognized  as  part  of  the  outpost, 
and  officers  known  to  have  authority  to  do  so,  to  pass  my 
post  either  in  or  out.  I  shall  detain  all  others  and  notify 
my  outguard  commander. 


380  SECURITY 

"  At  night  when  any  persons  approach  my  post,  I  shall 
come  to  a  ready,  halt  them,  and  notify  the  outguard  com- 
mander. Persons  claiming  to  be  deserters  from  the 
enemy  are  required  to  lay  down  their  arms.  If  they  are 
pursued  by  the  enemy,  I  shall  order  them  to  drop  their 
arms  and  I  shall  give  the  alarm.  If  they  fail  to  obey  me 
at  once  I  shall  fire  on  them.  I  shall  halt  bearers  of  flags 
of  truce  and  their  escorts,  require  them  to  face  outwards, 
and  at  once  notify  the  commander  of  the  outguard." 

55.  Detached  Posts. — These  are  practically  the 
same  as  supports,  but  are  sent  to  distant  points  outside  of 
the  line  of  supports  and  outpost  proper,  which  the  superior 
commander  has  deemed  it  necessary  to  cover.  Their  loca- 
tion is  made  known  to  all  members  of  the  outpost.  If  de- 
tailed to  this  duty  you  would  proceed  much  as  the  support 
commander,  and  arriving  at  your  destination  would  use 
your  best  judgment  in  disposing  your  strength  to  best 
cover  the  ground  assigned  you. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

MARCHES  AND  CONVOYS 

Article  IV,  Field  Service  Regulations,  contains  the 
consolidated  essence  of  the  principle  and  rules  for  the  con- 
duct of  marches  and  convoys.  This  is  a  vital  subject  for 
the  welfare  of  the  command,  and  should  engage  the  serious 
attention  of  every  man  who  may  exercise  in  any  degree 
whatever  the  function  of  leadership.  The  following 
observations,  in  amplification  of  the  Regulations,  have 
been  found  helpful  particularly  to  inexperienced  troops, 
but  may  not  be  considered  as  taking  the  place  of  the  text. 

1.  Not  only  in  war,  but  in  field  training  for  war, 
you  will  find  marches  of  almost  daily  occurrence,  while 
battles  will  be  but  few.  It  is  true  too  that  until  the  most 
modern  wars  the  casualties  of  marches  have  often  been 
greater  than  those  of  battles ;  and  this  will  always  char- 
acterize the  work  of  unseasoned  troops.  A  man  may 
gladly  give  his  life  on  the  battlefield,  and  yet  justly  com- 
plain at  being  made  sick  unto  death  by  the  indiflferent  or 
ignorant  conduct  of  the  marches  incident  to  the  campaign. 
How  important  then  that  everyone  study  the  art  of  con- 
ducting a  march  properly  and  acquiring  the  mental  habit 
of  invariably  considering  the  welfare  of  the  men  and 
horses  in  the  column. 

In  campaign  the  march  is  often  made  to  accomplish 
some  task  at  its  completion.  How  important  that  you 
shall  have  trained  yourself  and  your  men  so  you  may  con- 
duct it  properly,  and  arrive  ready  for  strenuous  fighting 
if  the  opportunity  offers. 

This  whole  Article  IV  is  full  of  valuable  points  for 
commanding  officers,  and  no  one  should  undertake  to  con- 
duct a  march  without  re-reading  it  carefully  to  be  sure  he 
has  in  mind  all  its  excellent  precepts.  An  inexperienced 
officer  on  a  march  may  well  keep  his  copy  of  Field  Service 
Regulations  in  his  pocket,  and  refer  to  this  chapter  during 

331 


832  MARCHES 

the  halts,  to  be  sure  he  is  not  sHghting  something.     I  have 
actually  seen  this  done,  and  to  good  advantage. 

2.  Note  t|iat  in  a  successful  march,  "  troops  arrive 
at  their  destination  at  the  proper  moment,"  which  meaHS 
that  the  march  is  begun  at  such  time  that  it  may  be  properly 
made  and  the  command  arrive  at  its  destination  just  on 
time.  This  requires  that  the  commanding  officer  use 
enough  gray  matter  to  figure  out  just  how  long  it  should 
take  the  command  to  make  the  march,  and  then  have 
enough  confidence  in  his  ability  to  conduct  it,  so  he  will 
dare  start  at  the  right  time.  So  often  commanding  officers 
commence  their  march  long  before  the  necessar)'  time,  so 
as  to  be  sure  to  get  there,  thus  subjecting  their  men  to 
unnecessary  hardship  and  annoyance,  as  well  as  losing  the 
opportunity  of  adding  the  interest  to  the  march  which 
would  come  from  everyone  realizing  that  they  had  so 
many  miles  to  make  in  just  so  much  time.  What  a  satis- 
faction to  everyone  concerned  to  see  a  commanding  officer 
start  at  a  given  time,  conduct  the  march  smartly,  and 
end  by  swinging  into  place  at  exactly  the  right  time.  That 
shows  a  little  headwork. 

3.  Note  also  that  "  they  must  arrive  in  the  best  pos- 
sible condition,"  and  this  means  not  alone  physically  but 
that  they  will  be  in  the  best  possible  spirits.  Probably  in 
no  other  form  of  field  service  can  there  be  so  much  oppor- 
tunity for  a  good  troop  leader  to  use  his  ingenuity  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  up  his  men's  spirits.  He  will  take  ad- 
vantage of  every  condition  he  meets  on  the  march  to  show 
that  he  is  conducting  it  with  constant  thought  for  the 
comfort  of  his  men ;  in  his  manner  of  passing  obstacles, 
avoiding  dust,  halting  so  that  they  will  get  the  shade  and 
the  breeze,  regulating  the  gait  so  as  to  keep  them  inspirited, 
etc.,  etc.  On  a  hot,  dusty  march  cavalry  should  ford  the 
stream  rather  than  cross  a  bridge,  especially  if  it  involves 
the  possibility  of  swimming  the  horses  a  short  distance ; 
the  excitement  and  change  of  this  will  keep  the  men  in 
spirits  for  a  considerable  distance.  Where  opportunity 
offers,  a  command  may  often  halt  and  let  everybody  go  in 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  333 

swimming.  It  is  impossible  to  dictate  here  just  what  the 
commanding  officer  may  do,  but  remember  that  on  the 
march  you  are  to  be  thinking  continually  of  how  you  may 
conduct  it  to  the  best  interests  of  your  men. 

4.  "  Marches  are  conducted  so  as  to  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the  hardships  of  the  troops."  This  is  a  funda- 
mental principle  of  field  service,  and  must  be  the  con- 
trolling guide  for  the  leader  in  the  conduct  of  all  classes  of 
work. 

5.  "  Careful  preparation  "  will  include  also  prescrib- 
ing exactly  what  clothing  for  the  men,  equipment  for  men 
and  horses,  and  camp  equipage  for  the  organization,  shall 
be  carried,  and  then  seeing  to  it  that  these  directions  are 
exactly  carried  out. 

6.  "  Strict  discipline  "  will  require  that  each  organ- 
ization commander  constantly  consider  the  last  man  in  the 
column  in  the  conduct  of  his  march.  It  has  been  found 
very  helpful  to  detail  an  intelligent  sergeant  to  set  the 
pace  every  day  at  the  head  of  the  column.  This  ensures 
uniformity  of  gait  and  enables  the  captain  to  drop  back 
alongside  the  column,  or  at  its  rear,  whenever  he  wishes, 
and  in  this  way  keep  track  of  the  condition  and  conduct 
of  all  his  men  and  horses. 

7.  "  March  sanitation  "  requires  careful  attention  to 
halting  where  the  environment  is  conducive  to  the  object 
of  the  halt ;  to  the  matter  of  drinking  water  for  the  men 
as  well  as  the  horses ;  to  the  care  of  the  men's  feet,  and 
the  horses'  backs  and  feet ;  to  keep  mounted  men  physi- 
cally awake  so  that  they  will  ride  properly. 

8.  "The  march  is  habitually  at  route  order,"  but  this 
allows  no  less  attention  on  the  part  of  the  commanding 
officer- and  his  assistants.  The  commanding  officer  who 
rides  along  telling  stories  or  listening  to  them  with  ap- 
parently no  thought  for  the  men  behind  him,  will  fail 
utterly  in  the  conduct  of  his  march,  and  the  men  properly 
hate  him.  While  the  men  themselves  relax  the  rigidity  of 
"  attention,"  they  must  nevertheless  continde  attentive  to 
the  requirements  of  marching,  and  mounted  men  must 


3S4  MARCHES  AND  CONVOYS 

ride  their  horses  with  attention  to  individual  horseman- 
ship. Their  failure  to  do  this  will  result  in  constant 
changes  of  pace  in  the  rear  of  the  column,  jamming  up, 
falling  back,  and  double  timing  or  trotting  up,  causing 
greater  fatigue  for  both  horses  and  men  at  the  end  of  the 
march. 

g.  Marching  with  packed  saddles,  the  troops 
should  be  mounted  by  the  command  or  signal,  mount, 
never  by  the  command  Prepare  to  mount,  MOUNT, 
as  in  drills  of  precision.  It  is  difficult,  particularly  for 
short  men,  to  mount  over  the  pack,  and  to  hold  them  for  a 
simultaneous  mount,  many  of  them  necessarily  balancing 
with  one  foot  in  the  stirrup,  results  in  pulling  the  saddle 
over  to  the  left  and  displacing  the  pack,  often  to  the  injury 
of  the  horse's  back. 

10.  The  march  should  be  conducted  normally  by 
visual  signals.  A  short  blast  of  the  whistle  calls  attention 
of  all  to  the  commander,  and  he  then  signals  the  desired 
command.  Men  should  quickly  learn  to  "  pass  the  word  " 
down  the  column.  This  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
control  in  night  work. 

11.  Where  other  than  the  regulation  hourly  halts 
are  made,  the  commanding  officer  determines  in  each  case 
whether  or  not  time  is  sufficient  to  justify  removing  packs 
and  dismounting.  If  practicable  he  should  always  do  this, 
and  inform  the  men  of  the  minimum  length  of  the  halt,  so 
they  may  take  full  advantage  of  it. 

12.  On  account  of  the  burden  of  the  packs,  the  less 
time  consumed  on  the  march,  within  reason,  the  better 
for  both  men  and  horses;  and  wherever  wagon  trans- 
portation is  available,  the  weight  of  the  pack  should  be 
reduced  by  transferring  part  of  the  load  to  the  wagon. 
Where  even  a  little  space  is  available,  a  careful  commander 
will  lighten  the  load  for  men  and  horses  that  are  below 
par,  thus  keeping  up  his  average  of  efficiency. 

13.  Rules  of  the  Road. — Troops  must  keep  the 
right  of  the  rOad,  the  rear  of  the  column  particularly,  so 
that  when  anyone  wishes  to  pass  he  will  be  sure  to  pass  on 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  335 

your  left  hand.  They  must  follow  accurately  in  trace  in 
passing  vehicles,  and  not  "  hog  the  road  "  by  cutting  in 
ahead  of  them.  The  principle  of  dividing  longitudinally 
to  admit  so  marching  as  to  avoid  dust,  muddy  or  hard, 
stony  road  beds  is  of  great  value  and  leaves  the  road  bed 
quite  free  for  ordinary  traffic.  In  this  everyone  should 
follow  in  the  exact  trace  of  the  leader  of  his  own  column, 
and  this  leader  should  take  great  interest  in  conducting  his 
column  over  the  best  route  available.  By  looking  back 
down  the  column  from  time  to  time  you  will  often  dis- 
cover some  indifferent  brute  who  is  lazily  allowing  his 
horse  to  plough  along  through  the  dust  to  the  great  dis- 
comfort of  all  the  men  in  the  rear  of  him,  even  when  the 
head  of  the  column  is  being  carefully  conducted  to  avoid 
the  dust.  Such  men  must  be  dealt  with  summarily — it  is 
generally  possible  to  arrange  for  them  to  march  for  a  few 
days  where  they  will  get  all  the  dust  there  is.  Nothing  is 
more  annoying  than  to  see  an  officer  or  noncommissioned 
officer  at  the  head  of  the  column  so  indifferent  to  his 
opportunities  as  a  leader  as  to  go  heedlessly  along  plough- 
ing up  a  cloud  of  dust. 

14.  Preparation. — Canteens  should  be  filled  the 
evening  before  and  hung  where  night  air  will  cool  contents. 
Especially  important  that  the  organization  commander 
should  superintend  the  preparation  for  the  march,  and 
his  lieutenants  may  well  be  engaged  in  this  themselves. 
Except  with  seasoned,  well-trained  troops,  many  things 
arise  in  which  the  presence  of  an  officer  is  helpful.  This 
requires  that  the  officers  turn  out  promptly  at  reveille  and 
immediately  thereafter  complete  their  toilet,  making  up 
their  rolls  and  leaving  their  tents  and  property  ready  for 
the  squad  in  charge  of  packing  up  the  officers'  tents.  In- 
difference to  this  has  often  delayed  the  loading  of  the 
wagon,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  men.  The  officers' 
having  their  breakfast  from  the  troop  mess  is  an  advan- 
tageous factor  in  this  connection. 

In  normal  conditions  the  old  idea  of  getting  up  before 
daylight  to  get  an  early  start'  is  a  thing  of  the  past.     This 


336  MARCHES  AND  CONVOYS 

is  the  very  best  hour  for  resting ;  then  a  later  start,  and 
a  more  smartly  conducted  march,  will  get  you  into  camp  at 
the  same  time  and  in  far  better  condition. 

15.  While  the  different  units  of  the  column  are 
separated  at  the  start  by  prescribed  distances,  these 
distances  are  expected  to  be  increased  and  diminished 
according  to  circumstances  during  the  progress  of  the 
march,  but  with  a  continual  tendeny  to  the  gradual 
resumption  of  normal  distances. 

16.  Rate  of  March. — The  great  consideration  is  that 
it  be  kept  uniform,  and  be  so  paced  as  to  allow  a  free 
swing  forward.  This  is  an  important  phase  of  infantry 
training,  in  which  efficient  organizations  take  pride  in 
being  most  skillful.  For  cavalry  the  rule  is  that  the  trot 
must  not  be  faster  than  the  slowest  horse  can  accomplish 
by  swinging  freely  in  the  trot,  nor  so  slow  as  to  prevent  all 
the  horses  swinging  freely,  A  free  trot  facilitates  posting, 
thus  easing  the  work  for  both  man  and  horse.  It  is  the  gait 
that  will  get  the  command  into  camp  with  the  least  fatigue, 
and  every  opportunity  should  be  taken  to  use  it.  You 
should  not  trot  down  grade,  especially  with  a  pack  saddle, 
nor  on  hard  road  surfaces.  Trotting  up  grade  is  not  in- 
jurious, and  is  a  test  of  the  strength  and  wind  only.  Too 
frequent  changes  of  gait  are,  of  course,  disadvantageous. 
Continuous  riding  at  a  walk  puts  both  men  and  horses  to 
sleep  and  results  in  sore  backs.  Where  road  conditions 
require  travelling  at  a  walk,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  dis- 
mount the  men  frequently  for  a  ten  minutes'  walk  at  as 
fast  a  gait  as  they  can  lead  the  horses.  This  will  bring 
new  muscles  into  play,  and  will  result  in  enough  fatigue 
to  make  the  saddles  feel  good  upon  remounting.  Dis- 
mounting to  walk  down  hills  of  any  length  should  always 
be  practiced. 

The  men  should  know  that  an  increased  gait  will  never 
be  taken  without  command, — which  should  keep  them 
from  "  trotting  up  "  in  the  rear. 

It  is  advantageous  to  have  a  few  minutes  quiet  trot 
before  the  first  prescribed  fifteen  minutes'  halt,  this  will 


PASSING  OBSTACLES  SS7 

better  prepare  men  and  equipment  for  accomplishing  the 
objects  of  the  halt. 

17.  The  rule  for  the  conduct  of  the  men  at  the 
hourly  halts  should  be  first,  attention  to  equipment,  then 
the  horses'  feet  and  harness,  then  the  man  himself,  and  not 
till  then  will  he  take  time  to  roll  his  cigarette.  In  prac- 
tice this  is  generally  reversed,  and  when  the  time  comes 
to  resume  the  march  a  few  men  are  found  just  beginning 
to  readjust  equipment.  During  all  halts  the  thoughtful 
trooper  gives  his  horse  an  opportunity  to  nip  the  grass, 
and  get  a  little  refreshment  from  the  fatigue  of  the  march. 

18.  It  is  a  safe  rule  that  troops  prefer  to  finish  a 
days'  march  as  soon  as  possible,  and  long  intermediate 
halts  are  rarely  advantageous.  Noonday  halting  to  avoid 
marching  in  the  heat  generally  proves  a  failure,  unless  the 
halt  can  be  made  in  particularly  pleasant  surroundings ; 
even  then  it  is  going  to  come  hard  to  start  out  again  in  the 
afternoon  and  will  interfere  with  the  accustomed  routine. 
Troops  should  reach  camp  in  time  to  complete  all  work 
before  dark. 

19.  Passing  Obstacles. — This  whole  paragraph  is 
important,  and  the  particular  point  to  be  observed  is  so  to 
regulate  the  march  of  the  head  of  the  column  as  to  prevent 
the  men  in  rear  having  to  close  up  at  an  increased  gait 
after  passing  the  obstacle  individually.  Anything  in  fhe 
road  which  causes  the  leader  to  slow  down  for  a  few  steps, 
will  cause  all  the  others  in  turn  to  do  the  same.  This 
has  got  to  result  in  opening  out  the  column  so  that  the 
individuals  have  to  increase  the  gait,  unless  the  leader 
holds  down  to  the  same  speed  at  which  he  passed  the 
obstacle  until  the  last  man  has  passed,  or  else  advance  the 
length  of  his  command  in  column,  and  there  halt  until  the 
last  man  has  closed.  Nothing  is  more  important  in  march- 
ing than  care  in  this  matter,  nor  more  often  neglected. 
It  may  be  simply  a  pitch  in  the  road,  a  muddy  or  a  rough 
place  that  will  cause  this  slowing  up  in  passing. 

20.  In  using  water  transportation,  a  fundamental 
rule  to  be  observed  is  that,  particularly  in  cases  that  may 

22 


338  MARCHES  AND  CONVOYS 

be  dangerous,  the  strictest  discipline  must  be  maintained 
on  board  the  boat ;  and  in  this  case  above  all  others,  the 
rule  should  be  enforced  that  the  men  remain  in  place,  and 
do  not  move  nor  attempt  to  disembark,  until  ordered  to 
do  so. 

21.  The  functions  of  the  officer  in  the  rear  of  the 
column  are  not  only  to  prevent  straggling,  but  to  attempt 
to  see  that  the  men  in  rear  march  to  the  best  advantage. 
If  he  finds  continual  closing  up  to  be  necessary,  he  should 
discover  the  individual  whose  fault  it  is,  and  shift  him 
to  the  rear  of  the  column ;  if  he  finds  it  to  be  the  fault  of 
the  gait  set  at  the  head  of  the  column,  he  should  inform 
the  captain  accordingly.  He  will  see  that  the  men  in  his 
vicinity  take  proper  care  of  their  equipment  at  the  halts. 
It  ought  never  to  be  necessary  for  men  to  fall  out  to  fix 
equipment  between  the  halts.  If  necessary  for  any 
mounted  man  to  fall  out  for  a  purpose  requiring  him  to 
dismount,  the  lieutenant  will  always  detail  a  second  man 
to  go  with  him  to  hold  his  horse.  He  will  see  that  these 
men  rejoining  the  column  never  travel  at  a  gait  faster 
than  a  trot. 

He  should  be  authorized  to  grant  permission  for  men  to 
fall  out,  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  their  going  ahead  to 
speak  to  the  captain.  In  case  a  rhan  falls  out  sick,  and  no 
surgeon  be  in  immediate  reach,  this  man  will  be  given  a 
slip  of  paper  on  which  will  be  stated  his  name,  organiza- 
tion, and  the  fact  that  he  falls  out  sick  with  authority, 
and  the  man  will  be  instructed  to  show  this  paper  to  the 
first*  surgeon  who  comes  along. 

22.  In  our  service  the  water  supply  is  rarely  ex- 
amined by  experts,  and  company  officers  will  generally 
have  to  use  their  own  judgment  as  to  its  availability  for 
drinking  purposes.  Where  intestinal  troubles  do  not  ex- 
ist, and  the  men  have  taken  the  typhoid  prophylactic,  this 
may  safely  be  left  to  company  officers.  It  is  rarely 
practicable  to  supply  boiled  water  on  the  march. 

23.  It  is  true  that  drinking  water  on  the  march  is 
largely  a  matter  of  habit.     Most  men  can  acquire  the 


DRINKING  ON  THE  MARCH  339 

habit  of  not  drinking  between  meals,  and  this  Is  certainly 
a  great  advantage  to  a  soldier  on  the  march.  Only  when 
perspiring  freely  will  nature  really  require  additional 
water  during  the  hours  of  the  march.  In  dry  countries  it 
is  possible  that  his  canteen  will  furnish  his  only  water 
supply  upon  his  arrival  in  camp.  In  any  case  drinking 
or  eating  to  excess  is  what  causes  trouble.  With  trained 
troops  the  necessity  for  refilling  canteens  on  the  march 
will  only  arise  when  in  such  dry  country  that  the  question 
of  having  water  in  the  next  camp  requires  it. 

24.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  on  the  march  the  horse 
needs  watering  more  frequently  than  the  man,  and  when 
it  can  be  done  a  horse  should  be  watered  at  frequent  in- 
tervals. The  quiet  orderliness  with  which  troopers  water 
their  horses  is  one  of  the  best  indications  of  the  efficiency 
of  the  command.  Effort  should  always  be  made  so  to 
regulate  the  watering  of  horses  as  to  give  them  an  oppor- 
tunity to  drink  quietly  of  clear,  unsullied  water.  This 
will  require  careful  attention  on  the  part  of  individual 
troopers,  as  well  as  the  supervision  of  an  officer  or  good 
noncommissioned  officer.  Where  curb  bits  are  used  they 
should  be  removed  while  the  horse  is  drinking.  It  is  a 
custom  of  many  troops  in  the  Regular  Service  to  use 
only  the  bridoon  bit  while  on  the  march ;  the  horse  being 
much  better  able  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  curb  bit  in  the 
saddle  bag  than  out  at  the  end  of  the  long  lever  arm  of 
his  neck. 

In  peace  time  field  service  the  horses  should  be  fed  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  in  garrison.  In  war  time 
the  trooper  grasps  every  opportunity  to  let  him  eat  some- 
thing. He  may  even  bring  into  bivouac  a  bundle  of  long 
forage  under  his  arm  for  the  benefit  of  his  horse. 

25.  In  avoiding  the  hardship  of  heat  on  the  march, 
select  halting  places  with  shade,  and  free  circulation  of  air, 
and  place  green  leaves  in  the  hat,  the  crown  of  the  hat 
being  pushed  out.  It  is  also  helpful  to  unbutton  the  collar 
button  of  the  shirt,  and  this  is  allowable.  In  fact  it  was 
probably  for  this  purpose  that  the  wearing  of  black  ties 


340  MARCHES  AND  CONVOYS 

was  dispensed  with.  The  rolling  up  of  the  shirt  sleeves, 
while  soothing,  has  never  been  allowed.  Night  marches 
to  avoid  the  heat  are  of  little  value,  and  are  particularly 
trying  on  the  horses,  who  have  to  spend  the  long  hours 
of  the  day  fighting  flies. 

26.  To  practice  marching'  for  the  purpose  of  hard- 
ening men  and  animals  is  scarcely  applicable  to  citizen 
training.  It  is,  however,  of  great  value  to  practice  march- 
ing for  the  purpose  of  instructing  both  officers  and  men  in 
the  duties  incident  thereto,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
fitting  instructors  for  the  recruits  when  necessity  comes. 
They  should,  therefore,  be  made  as  nearly  as  possible 
under  service  conditions. 

27.  The  arrival  of  the  wagon  train  in  camp  at  the 
end  of  the  march  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  welfare 
of  the  command.  Every  man  in  the  organization  should 
be  interested  in  the  successful  conduct  of  the  wagon  train, 
and  take  particular  interest  in  performing  thoroughly  any 
duties  to  which  he  may  be  assigned  that  will  in  any  way 
effect  the  welfare  of  the  train.  Probably  the  most  fre- 
quent cause  of  delay  is  the  presence  in  the  train  of  wagons 
improperly  packed,  whose  loads  are  shifting  and  falling 
off  on  the  road. 

The  same  men  who  have  indifferently  loaded  the  wagon 
in  the  morning  are  probably  the  first  to  grumble  at  its  non- 
arrival  in  camp.  It  is  really  important  that  every  man  in 
the  organization  know  how  to  load  a  wagon  properly  with 
the  field  equipment  and  even  more  important  that  some 
one  man  who  is  particularly  skillful  in  this  should  be  in 
charge  each  day  of  the  loading. 

28.  It  should  be  the  interest  not  only  of  the  quar- 
termaster and  his  men  in  charge  of  the  train,  but  of  the 
section  detachments  from  the  escort  accompanying  the 
train,  to  assist  in  every  way  in  bringing  the  train  safely  and 
promptly  into  camp.  Very  much  will  depend  on  the  com- 
mon sense  shown  by  the  drivers  in  their  care  and  handling 
of  their  teams. 


CONVOYS,  ESCORT  DUTY  341 

29.  In  case  a  forced  march  is  ever  imminent,  look 
up  the  excellent  rules  in  Regulations  for  its  conduct. 

30.  Every  organization  should  have  at  least  one  ex- 
perience in  making  a  night  march  through  country  with 
which  they  are  unfamiliar.  They  will  then  learn  the 
peculiar  difficulties  of  conducting  them  properly,  and  the 
necessity  for  observing  great  attention  to  many  details, 
particularly  to  keeping  good  order,  keeping  the  men  awake 
and  the  horses  from  stumbling,  and  to  keeping  the  right 
road,  especially  where  you  are  trying  to  follow  a  preced- 
ing command.  If  opportunity  oflFers,  to  maneuver  in  a 
heavy  fog,  will  furnish  much  the  same  conditions.  Before 
undertaking  it,  read  the  Regulations  on  the  subject.  Prac- 
tice "  passing  the  word,"  from  head  to  rear,  and  from 
rear  to  head,  as  preliminary  training. 

31.  Convoys,  Escort  Duty. — The  convoys  with 
which  you  will  generally  have  to  do  will  be  the  supply 
train,  usually  wagons  under  charge  of  a  quartermaster. 
The  natural  escort  for  these  trains  is  Infantry,  whose 
rate  of  march  most  nearly  accords  with  theirs.  Distant 
patrolling,  however,  is  necessary  to  security  in  the  presence 
of  the  enemy,  and  cavalry  will  be  attached  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  advance  cavalry  should  work  from  three  to  five 
miles  ahead,  scouting  well  to  the  flanks.  The  secret  of 
successful  convoy  duty  is  eflFective  patrolling  to  such  a 
distance  as  will  discover  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  long 
before  he  is  within  striking  distance.  Besides  assuring 
security,  this  force  investigates  the  road  as  to  its  availabil- 
ity, the  security  of  bridges  for  the  train,  the  acceptability 
and  safety  of  defiles,  and  wherever  question  might  arise 
or  trouble  ensue,  leaves  a  guard  until  the  support  comes  up. 

32.  The  advance  guard  proper  marches  about  a 
mile  ahead  of  the  train,  its  commander  constantly  exam- 
ining the  country  with  a  view  to  selecting  suitable  places 
for  parking  the  convoy  should  the  enemy  be  encountered. 
He  would  never  permit  the  head  of  the  train  to  enter  a 
defile  or  other  difficult  situation  until  his  guard  was  in 
possession  of  the  far  end  of  it. 


842  MARCHES  AND  COVVOYS 

33.  The  senior  line  officer  on  duty  with  the  troops 
detailed  for  escort,  commands  the  convoy.  Thus  a  lieu- 
tenant and  his  platoon  escorting  a  colonel  paymaster  and 
his  money  chests.  The  commanding  officer,  however,  con- 
sults so  far  as  practicable  the  wishes  of  the  officer  in 
charge  of  the  convoy  as  to  the  hour  of  starting,  length  of 
marches,  times  and  places  of  halting,  etc. 

34.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  escort  to  bring  the  convoy 
safely  to  its  destination  on  time ;  the  commanding  officer 
should  not  consider  himself  interested  only  in  protecting 
it  from  the  assaults  of  the  enemy.  Not  only  will  the 
squad  of  the  escort  assigned  to  each  wagon  section  be 
instructed  to  assist  in  every  way,  but  the  whole  escort 
should  take  an  interest  in  helping  out  in  any  emergency 
that  might  delay  the  train.  Not  only  may  they  have  to 
assist  in  repairing  roads  and  bridges,  but  actually  in  work- 
ing with  the  teams  and  wagons. 

35.  The  flanks  of  the  convoy  are  its  most  vulnerable 
point  of  attack  by  the  enemy.  Efficient  scouting  must 
make  it  impossible  for  the  enemy  to  bring  the  wagons 
under  effective  rifle  fire  without  previous  warning.  A 
convoy  should  never  be  surprised. 

36.  The  escort  is  not  expected  to  do  much  offensive 
fighting;  it  would  not  pursue  a  repulsed  enemy.  If  the 
enemy  holds  a  commanding  position  on  the  line  of  march 
he  must  either  be  dislodged  by  the  escort,  or  perhaps  bet- 
ter, be  kept  occupied  while  the  convoy  proceeds  on  another 
road. 

37.  This  service  requires  the  greatest  promptness  in 
determining  the  strength  of  the  enemy  found  in  opposition, 
and  particularly  in  getting  the  report  of  his  strength  and 
position  back  to  the  commanding  officer. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

1.  As  in  marches  so  in  camp,  the  fundamental  con- 
sideration is  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  hardships  for  the 
men  and  horses,  and  also  to  add  everything  practicable  for 
the  comfort,  and  to  keep  up  the  interest  of,  the  men.  Men 
will  not  take  care  of  themselves  without  the  direction  of 
some  one  in  authority  ;  they  will  wade  through  mud  to  get 
water  from  a  spring  where  five  minutes'  work  would  place 
stepping  stones  or  rails  to  keep  their  feet  dry.  The  leader 
must  see  to  such  things,  considering  each  new  camp  an 
interesting  problem  for  him  to  solve  to  the  very  best  in- 
terests of  his  men.  Often  brush  shelters  can  be  quickly 
erected  for  protection  from  winds  or  storms.  It  is  easy 
to  cut  brush  and  make  artificial  shade  where  natural  shade 
does  not  exist.  It  should  be  arranged  artificially  in  hot 
weather  for  at  least  one  assembly  place  where  the  men 
may  eat  and  sit  about  after  meals.  A  few  minutes'  work 
will  often  clean  out  a  spring,  and  add  lOO  per  cent,  to  its 
value.  A  quickly  built  dam  will  often  make  a  comfortable 
pool  from  a  shallow  stream.  The  men  soon  learn  that 
these  things  are  for  their  own  comfort,  and  while  they  will 
not  do  them  undirected,  they  are  easily  interested  in  doing 
them  under  enthusiastic  leadership.  It  is  impossible  even 
to  suggest  all  that  may  be  done — it  is  up  to  the  ingenuity 
of  the  leader  and  it  is  no  time  for  him  to  rest  in  the  shade 
and  let  the  men  shift  for  themselves. 

2.  The  kind  and  amount  of  tentage  is  determined 
by  the  conditions  of  service.  It  is  often  an  advantage  in 
warm  dry  weather  not  to  put  up  any  tentage  for  one  night 
stands.  Where  headquarters  contains  many  officers,  as 
often  at  maneuvers,  it  would  be  a  great  saving  to  the 
troops  and  to  transportation  to  use  one  large  tent  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  entire  staff. 

3.  While  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  tactical  con- 

343 


844  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

siderations  must  practically  determine  the  site  for  the 
camp ;  in  peace  time,  and  wherever  possible,  greatest  care 
should  be  given  to  the  selection  of  the  site.  Not  only 
sanitary  considerations,  but  those  for  the  comfort  and 
entertainment  and  interest  of  the  men  should  govern. 
Privacy  should  be  secured  whenever  possible.  Nothing 
adds  more  to  the  interest  and  welfare  of  men  in  camp 
than  to  be  near  water  available  for  swimming,  and  gen- 
erally facilities  for  swimming  may  be  found  with  a  little 
exertion  within  striking  distance  of  camp.  Effort  should 
be  made  to  do  this,  and  in  case  a  swimming  hole  is  found, 
everyone  in  the  command  should  be  notified  where  it  is. 
This  should  always  be  the  care  of  the  leader.  And  the 
hours  for  stated  calls  should  be  published  promptly  so  the 
men  may  know  what  time  is  available  for  any  purposes 
that  take  them  out  of  camp,  swimming,  etc. 

4.  The  manual  of  each  arm  prescribes  the  method 
for  its  organizations  to  go  into  shelter  tent  camp.  For  the 
cavalry,  while  awaiting  theirs,  the  following  is  recom- 
mended. Halt  the  troop  on  the  ground  where  the  picket 
line  will  be,  rather  than  where  the  men's  tents  will  be,  thus 
preventing  soiling  the  ground  that  is  to  be  slept  on.  The 
men  are  dismounted,  bridles,  arms  and  cantle  rolls  are  re- 
moved and  placed  in  lines  one  yard  in  front  of  the  horses, 
the  odd  number  horses  are  then  turned  back  into  the  rank 
and  tied  in  pairs  to  the  even  numbers,  head  to  cantle. 
Each  man  immediately  returns  and  stands  behind  his 
equipment.  This  leaves  all  of  the  men  free  to  pitch  camp 
together,  the  horses  being  immobile.  Meantime  the  chiefs 
of  platoons  have  gone  to  the  right  flank  and  stationed 
themselves  to  mark  the  right  of  the  two  lines  of  tents. 
When  the  captain  sees  all  the  men  ready,  standing  by 
their  equipment,  he  commands  "  Form  to  pitch  camp,"  the 
men  pick  up  their  equipment,  and  form  in  the  same  order 
in  columns  of  files  on  the  chiefs  of  platoon  faced  toward 
them,  covering  oflf  from  head  to  rear  and  taking  each  six 
feet  from  the  man  in  front  of  him,  the  odd  numbers  on 
the  chief  of  the  first  platoon  and  the  even  numbers  on  the 


TO  PITCH  A  SHELTER  TENT  S4>5 

second.  One  and  three  tent  together,  two  and  four  to- 
gether, Nos.  I  mark  with  the  heel  at  command  of 
their  chief  given  as  soon  as  the  column  has  covered 
off,  Nos.  2  at  command  of  theirs.  The  captain  com- 
mands, "  Pitch  camp."  He  may  pitch  with  the  tents 
faced  toward  the  street,  usually  done.  This  system  is 
equally  good  for  pitching  camp  in  one  lin?,  the  whole  troop 
forming  one  column  on  the  chief  of  first  platoon,  i  and  2 
pitching  together,  3  and  4  together,  Nos.  i  and  3  marking 
at  command.  This  system  allows  the  man  to  carry  all  his 
equipment  with  him  as  he  falls  in  to  mark  the  location  of 
his  tent,  thus  time  is  saved  and  equipment  not  misplaced, 
as  has  often  happened.  Each  man  in  turn  takes  his  place 
from  the  head  and  may  move  to  avoid  a  boulder  or  other 
obstruction  without  deranging  the  rest  of  the  column, 
since  it  has  not  yet  formed.  After  the  camp  is  pitched  the 
picket  line  may  be  placed  quietly  and  the  horses  tied  on 
it.  One  of  the  marked  advantages  of  this  method  is  that 
the  saddles  may  be  left  on  without  danger  of  having  them 
broken  by  the  horses  rolling  while  the  men  are  pitching 
camp.  A  disadvantage  is  that  it  is  not  safe  to  loosen 
cinchas  while  the  horses  are  tied  in  pairs.  It  may  be  done 
in  a  few  minutes,  however,  when  the  horses  go  on  the  line, 
and  circulation  under  the  saddle  will  have  been  somewhat 
relieved  by  removing  the  weight  of  the  trooper  from  the 
saddle. 

5.  There  is  just  one  sure  way  to  pitch  a  shelter  tent 
expeditiously,  and  it  should  be  learned  in  preliminary  prac- 
tical instruction.  The  halves  buttoned  together,  one  man 
will  give  his  whole  attention  to  holding  the  front  tent 
pole  vertically  in  place,  while  the  other  first  pins  down  the 
front  corners  of  the  tent,  aligning  them  into  the  line  of  the 
front  tent  poles,  and  then  takes  the  front  guy  rope  and  pins 
that  in  position  taut.  They  have  now  completed  the 
"  front  triangle."  Both  now  go  to  the  rear  of  the  tent,  one 
holds  the  rear  pole  vertical,  while  the  other  pins  down  the 
two  comers,  and  guy  rope  making  the  "  rear  triangle." 
The  tent  is  now  up  with  the  sides  flat  and  smooth ;  one  man 


346  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

may  occupy  himself  with  buttoning  together  and  pegging 
into  place  the  rear  point  of  the  tent,  while  the  other  pins 
down  the  interior  points  of  the  sides  of  the  tent;  or  if 
stones  for  driving  tent  pins  are  scarce,  one  may  drive  all 
the  pins,  while  the  other  proceeds  to  arrange  the  equip- 
ment. As  tent  poles  are  being  constantly  lost  and  broken 
in  field  service,  and  are  a  nuisance  in  the  pack,  many  troops 
find  it  more  satisfactory  to  leave  them  in  garrison,  and 
use  in  their  place  the  saber  in  its  scabbard. 

6.  In  making  a  shelter  tent  camp,  no  tent  should 
be  pitched  on  ground  unsuitable  for  sleeping  on,  in  order 
that  alignment  and  interval  may  be  preserved.  The  men 
themselves  must  know  that  they  are  expected  to  move  a 
little  to  the  right  or  left  or  even  backward  or  forward  out 
of  line,  rather  than  pitch  their  tent  in  a  little  gully  that 
would  carry  a  stream  of  water  through  it  in  case  of  rain, 
or  over  an  out-cropping  rock  on  which  they  would  have 
to  lie  all  night. 

7.  Particularly  in  cold,  stormy  weather  some  troops 
consider  it  advantageous  for  four  men  to  pitch  together, 
buttoning  the  square  ends  of  their  tents  together,  thus 
presenting  a  tent  of  double  length  with  both  ends  pointed, 
and  closed,  if  desired. 

8.  A  most  advantageous  form  for  the  picket  line  is 
three  sides  of  a  hollow  square ;  this  can  be  easily  done  with 
a  ground  line.  It  enables  the  sentinel,  standing  in  the 
centre  to  see  all  of  the  horses  all  of  the  time,  and  to  reach 
any  horse  in  trouble  almost  instantly. 

9.  If  the  organization  be  part  of  a  larger  command, 
as  it  approaches  the  immediate  camp  site  some  man  should 
precede,  reporting  to  the  officer  who  is  to  designate  the 
exact  location  of  each  organization,  and  under  his  direc- 
tion take  post  where  the  right  of  the  company  is  to  rest. 
The  captain  can  then  bring  his  company  into  position 
without  delay  or  confusion. 

10.  The  quiet  orderliness  and  the  promptness  with 
which  a  command  goes  into  camp  is  a  real  test  of  the 
excellence  of  its  interior  administration  and  efficiency. 


CAMP  POLICE  347 

This  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the  proper  use  of  the 
squad  system  for  doing  the  necessary  work  about  camp, 
and  a  well-organized  company  will  go  into  camp  without 
noise  or  confusion  and  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 
Where  this  system  has  been  inaugurated  each  squad  leader 
knows  exactly  what  his  men  should  do,  and  the  order  in 
which  they  are  to  do  it,  and  the  whole  command  works 
with  machinelike  precision. 

11.  The  question  of  ditching  tents  and  picket  lines 
is  always  determined  by  the  captain,  and  not  left  to  the 
individual  initiative  of  the  men ;  in  the  same  way  he  de- 
termines when  tents  shall  be  rolled  or  furled,  and  bedding 
and  clothing  aired. 

12.  The  first  things  to  be  considered  upon  arriving 
in  camp  are  the  rules  for  sanitation,  and  proper  use  of  the 
water  supply.  Every  officer  and  noncommissioned  of- 
ficer must  consider  himself  on  duty  in  seeing  that  the  camp 
grounds  are  not  soiled,  and  that  proper  police  regulations 
are  observed,  not  only  in  this  connection,  but  in  connec- 
tion with  the  water  supply. 

13.  "  Lack  of  sufficient  rest  not  only  renders  troops 
unfit  for  hard  work  but  diminishes  their  power  of  resist- 
ing disease."  National  Guard  officers  have  been  known 
to  tell  their  men  that  they  must  expect  hardships  in  the 
field,  and  apparently  to  welcome  all  manner  of  unneces- 
sary hardships,  nor  make  any  eflfort  to  alleviate  them ;  this 
is  unreasonable.  To  undergo  avoidable  hardships  does 
not  enable  one  to  stand  the  unavoidable  ones  any  better. 
As  a  matter  of  self-training  in  troop  leadership,  officers 
should  make  every  eflFort  to  prevent  unnecessary  hardships 
and  to  alleviate  the  necessary  ones.  Work  should  be  so 
arranged  and  systematized  that  the  men  may  be  given  full 
opportunity  to  rest  during  the  day,  and  always  allowed 
opportunity  for  a  full  night's  sleep.  Particularly  with 
young  men,  and  those  unaccustomed  to  hard  physical  work 
out  of  doors,  long  hours  of  undisturbed  sleep  are  neces- 
sary to  keep  them  in  the  best  of  condition. 

14.  The  curse  of  a  camp  is  an  officer  who  is  con- 


S48  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

stantly  calling  for  details  of  men  for  fatigue  duty  at  all 
times  of  the  day,  and,  even  worse,  calling  for  two  or  three 
times  as  many  men  as  he  needs.  Work  must  be  systema- 
tized so  that  it  may  be  done  and  out  of  the  way  and  the 
men  allowed  to  rest,  and  above  all  the  officer  requiring 
a  detail  should  use  judgment  and  ask  for  no  more  men 
than  are  necessary  for  its  proper  accomplishment,  the 
men  working  reasonably.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  army 
to  see  eight  men  puttering  about  a  piece  of  work  that 
should  be  done  by  two  or  three. 

15.  In  field  service,  where  the  day's  work  requires 
an  equal  amount  of  exertion  for  all  members  of  the  com- 
mand, it  is  unreasonable  to  require  such  guard  duty  as  will 
handicap  certain  ones  by  requiring  several  hours'  loss  of 
sleep,  as  results  from  garrison  guards.  This  duty  should 
be  performed  by  "  running  guards,"  in  which  each  man 
loses  but  one  hour's  sleep. 

16.  In  mounted  commands,  it  is  a  general  principle 
that  every  one  is  on  duty  all  the  time  in  case  of  trouble 
on  the  picket  line,  members  of  the  stable  crew  particu- 
larly. This  makes  a  special  guard  unnecessary  during 
the  hours  of  daylight.  In  case  of  stampede  the  men 
hasten  to  the  horses  and  go  quietly  among  them  and  re- 
store tranquility.  If  the  herd  get  away,  one  or  more 
troopers  on  fast  horses  get  into  the  lead  and  gradually 
lead  the  herd  back  to  camp.  In  presence  of  the  enemy  a 
detail  from  each  platoon  is  always  designated  to  go  im- 
mediately to  the  horses  in  case  of  attack,  to  take  such 
action  as  the  captain  directs. 

17.  In  field  service  the  cavalryman  is  distinguished 
by  the  personal,  often  affectionate,  care  he  gives  his 
horse.  Thorough  grooming,  hand  rubbing  of  the  legs  and 
back  under  the  saddle,  careful  watering  and  feeding  are 
grateful  attentions  that  the  horse  well  repays  in  added 
service.  He  has  gloried  in  his  horse  on  the  march  as  he 
rode  smilingly  by  the  enpacked  infantryman  plodding  in 
the  dust.  When  he  reaches  camp  he  must  gladly  recipro- 
cate by  thoughtful  attention  to  the  welfare  of  his  horse, 

while  the  infantryman  rests. 


CARE  OF  MEN  349 

i8.  In  camp  the  organization  commander  should 
drop  around  at  unexpected  times  to  see  how  things  are 
going,  particularly  at  the  kitchen.  Stated  inspections  of 
camp  are  of  less  value  in  maintaining  cleanliness. 

19.  The  best  rule  for  policing  a  camp  is  to  keep  the 
camp  policed.  In  permanent  camps  some  receptacle,  most 
easily  a  grain  sack,  should  be  tied  to  the  tent  ropes  outside 
the  door  of  each  tent  for  the  reception  of  waste  matter; 
the  police  detail  will  empty  these  each  morning. 

20.  A  little  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  squad 
leaders  will  enable  them  to  arrange  some  kind  of  rack 
where  the  personal  arms  and  equipment  of  the  men  may  be 
kept  off  the  ground  and  out  of  the  way  in  each  tent.  In 
the  same  way  from  three  green  sticks  a  saddle  rack  may 
be  made  outside  of  the  tent  in  about  five  minutes,  where 
the  horse  equipment  may  be  kept  covered  by  the  slickers. 

21.  Your  men  should  always  be  in  the  fittest  con- 
dition possible.  Unnecessary  exposure  or  anything  to 
lower  the  vitality  should  be  avoided,  as  these  put  them  in  a 
receptive  condition  for  breakdown  and  disease.  Exces- 
sive use  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon causes  along  this  line.  How  many  men  have  ruined 
their  careers  as  a  result  of  sickness  or  disease  contracted 
while  under  the  influence  of  liquor,  or  as  a  result  of  re- 
duced vitality  from  its  use.  Men  should  not  be  required 
to  sleep  on  the  bare  ground  unnecessarily  and  provision 
should  be  made,  if  possible,  for  extra  hay  or  straw  for 
their  bedding. 

22.  It  is  important  to  keep  the  intestines  warm 
when  sleeping,  hence  the  value  of  olive  drab  shirts ;  woolen 
socks  are  also  a  great  comfort  on  cold  nights.  If  the 
night's  sleep  has  been  broken  the  commanding  officer 
should  try  to  plan  that  all  may  have  a  chance  to  sleep  after 
lunch  next  day,  remembering  that  young  men  particularly 
need  a  full  amount  of  sleep. 

25.  It  is  recommended  that  each  organization  have 
among  its  reference  books,  for  the  use  of  the  men,  and 
for  the  use  of  the  organization  commander  whenever  in 


850  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

the  field,  a  copy  of  "  Field  Service,"  by  Captain  James  A. 
Moss.  It  contains  not  only  a  great  many  practical  guides 
and  suggestions  for  field  service,  and  care  of  the  men  in 
the  field,  but  many  suggestions  and  camp  expedients, 
which  will  be  found  most  interesting  to  squad  leaders,  and 
even  to  the  individual  men  themselves. 

24.  In  camp  a  great  convenience  results  from  keep- 
ing some  large  receptacle  of  water  hot  at  the  kitchen 
incinerator  fire,  for  the  free  use  of  the  men,  without 
disturbing  the  cooks  at  the  kitchen.  Make  the  rule  that 
any  man  may  take  what  hot  water  he  needs  at  any  time, 
pr6vided  he  replenishes  the  boiler  with  the  same  quantity 
of  cold  water. 

25.  It  is  the  duty  of  first  the  squad  leaders,  and  then 
the  first  sergeant  and  quartermaster  sergeant,  to  see  that 
the  men  are  always  properly  equipped.  No  equipment 
should  be  taken  in  the  field  that  is  likely  to  give  out  during 
the  proposed  tour.  This  is  particularly  applicable  to  im- 
jxDrtant  straps  that  are  likely  to  break  under  strain,  es- 
pecially curb  straps  and  stirrup  leathers.  Where  they 
show  such  wear  that  they  are  likely  to  give  way  under 
strain,  the  strain  should  be  applied  at  once,  and  the  two 
resulting  pieces  taken  to  the  quartermaster  sergeant  and 
exchanged  for  a  new  strap.  This  will  save  accidents  in 
the  field  and  add  to  eifficiency  in  strenuous  times. 

26.  "  Retreat  "  is  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  the 
organization  commander  an  opportunity  to  inspect  the 
condition  of  the  men,  their  clothing,  equipment  and  arms. 
Held  at  the  close  of  the  day,  and  under  arms,  the  com- 
manding officer  will  avail  himself  of  this  opportunity  to 
see  that  his  men  have  cleaned  themselves  and  their  equip>- 
ment  properly. 

27.  Reveille  should  not  be  held  under  arms,  espe- 
cially in  a  mounted  command.  It  is  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  the  men  out  and  starting  the  day's  work,  and  the 
first  thing  is  to  feed  and  clean  the  horses,  taking  about  ten 
minutes  ;  then  the  men  will  wash  up.  police  their  tents,  and 
get  ready  for  breakfast.     In  permanent  camps,  where 


MAKING  AND  BREAKING  CAMP  351 

conditions  admit,  a  short,  brisk  setting  up  drill,  to  get  the 
blood  in  circulation  and  the  pores  of  the  skin  open,  fol- 
lowed by  a  swim,  will  be  found  of  great  advantage  in 
starting  the  day  right,  and  in  keeping  the  men  in  splendid 
physical  condition. 

28.  In  making  and  breaking  camp  it  is  important 
that  the  same  detail  that  takes  down  and  p?cks  the  officers' 
and  kitchen  tents  in  the  morning,  shall  put  them  up  when 
the  next  camp  is  made,  and  that  they  know  they  are  to  do 
so.  They  will  then  observe  how  things  are  arranged,  will 
pack  with  a  view  to  facility  in  unpacking,  and  when  the 
wagon  is  unloaded,  will  be  able  to  select  the  tents  and 
property  without  confusion  and  a  lot  of  talking.  Having 
details  change  as  the  new  camp  is  made,  puts  the  men  at 
a  great  disadvantage  for  quick,  smooth  work. 

29.  Every  officer  should  have  not  only  a  canvas 
bedding  roll  but  a  regulation  clothing  roll.  These  can  be 
purchased  from  the  government.  They  should  then  be 
plainly  marked  with  the  officer's  name,  rank  and  organiza- 
tion, where  they  will  show  when  rolled  up. 

Making  and  Breaking  Camp,  Using  the  Squad 
System 

30.  Because  so  few  organizations  have  seemed  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  using  this  system  in  making  camp, 
it  seems  wise  to  describe  it  in  detail,  giving  a  picture  of  its 
workings.  And  because  the  cavalry  have  no  system  pre- 
scribed at  present,  the  picture  is  drawn  for  a  cavalry  troop. 
It  may  be  easily  adapted  to  an  organization  of  any  other 
arm.  It  is  understood  that  each  captain  is  expected  to 
use  his  own  ingenuity  in  the  administration  of  his  own 
command  ;  and  the  following  system  should  be  considered 
a  standard,  not  that  you  should  follow,  but  bdow  which 
your  own  system  must  not  fall  in  efficiency. 

31.  As  troops  nm  in  the  regular  service,  your  peace 
time  organization  will  consist  of  the  first  sergeant,  quarter- 
master sergeant,  the  four  permanent  squads  each  under  a 
sergeant  and  containing  two  corporals  and  about  ten  or 


352  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

twelve  men;  and  a  fifth  permanent  squad,  called  the 
'*  stable  crew."  Thus  will  your  working  force  be  or- 
ganized in  teams,  to  whose  leaders  you  assign  the  work 
to  be  done. 

32.  If  carrying  canvas,  there  will  be  one  conical  or 
pyramidal  tent  for  each  squad,  a  tent  for  the  first  ser- 
geant, a  store  tent  for  the  quartermaster  sergeant  and 
supplies,  canvas  for  the  kitchen  and  rears,  and  one  or  two 
wall  tents  for  the  officers. 

33.  The  troop  acting  alone  reaches  camp.  The  cap- 
tain decides  where  he  will  put  the  troop  as  he  arrives  upon 
the  field,  and  halts  in  line  approximately  where  the  picket 
line  will  be.  He  dismounts  the  troop,  unbridles,  strips 
saddles  and  ties  horses  in  pairs,  as  in  pitching  shelter  tent 
camp.  While  the  chiefs  of  platoons  superintend  this,  the 
captain  will  ride  over  the  field  with  his  orderly  and  the 
guidon  sergeant.  He  will  select  the  line  for  the  troop 
tents,  pointing  out  the  site  of  the  first  sergeant's  tent  to  the 
guidon  sergeant,  who  marks  it  by  planting  the  guidon  at 
the  front  tent  pole,  and  then  returns  to  the  troop,  dis- 
mounts and  rejoins  his  squad. 

34.  The  captain  continues  his  selection  of  sites  for 
the  kitchen,  store  tent,  and  officers'  tents,  picket  line  and 
rears,  and,  if  the  wagons  have  not  yet  arrived,  may  in- 
clude an  investigation  of  the  water  and  wood  supplies. 
(Ha  surgeon  is  with  the  troop,  he  should  investigate  the 
water  immediately  and  report  to  the  captain,  in  time  to 
publish  any  necessary  regulations  to  the  troop  before  they 
break  ranks.)  This  selection  of  sites  is  generally  neces- 
sary. The  normal  camp  prescribed  in  regulations,  like  the 
normal  formation  for  advance  guard,  is  to  explain  the 
principles,  and  is  to  be  adapted  thereafter  to  the  ground  as 
you  find  it.  Keep  the  kitchen  and  stores  on  the  flank  next 
to  the  officers,  away  from  the  picket  line  and  rear,  and  use 
the  ground  to  the  best  advantage.  The  captain  returns  to 
the  troop,  assembles  the  officers,  quartermaster  and  stable 
sergeants  and  squad  leaders  and  points  out  to  the  leaders 
concerned  the  location  of  the  various  parts  of  camp.    The 


USING  SQUAD  SYSTEM  353 

first  lieutenant,  with  the  squad  leaders,  may  pace  off  the 
distances  from  the  guidon,  and  indicate  to  each  squad 
leader  the  definite  location  of  his  tent.  Here,  again,  exact- 
ness of  interval  is  disregarded  in  selecting  suitable  ground 
to  sleep  on.  The  second  lieutenant  may  take  charge  of 
locating  exactly  the  site  of  the  kitchen,  the  store  tent,  and 
the  picket  line,  pointing  out  the  first  two  to  the  quarter- 
master sergeant,  and  the  picket  line  to  the  stable  sergeant. 
The  captain  will  meantime  ride  over,  dismount,  and  care- 
fully select  the  exact  location  of  his  own  tent,  marking  it 
by  planting  his  saber  at  the  front  pole. 

35.  Meanwhile,  the  troopers  have  been  under  con- 
trol in  ranks  beside  their  equipment.  If  the  wagons  have 
not  yet  arrived,  the  captain  must  employ  the  intervening 
time  to  the  best  advantage,  regarding  the  comfort  of  the 
men  and  horses.  The  men's  equipment  may  be  carried 
into  squad  piles  in  front  of  their  respective  tent  sites,  the 
men  getting  out  soap  and  towels  and  washing  up,  if  suit- 
able water  be  available.  If  this  be  done,  it  must  be  under 
control  and  by  order.  If  nose  bags  have  been  carried, 
containing  the  noontime  feed,  the  horses  may  be  fed  while 
standing  tied  in  pairs.  If  the  bags  are  as  usual  empty  on 
the  ends  of  the  rolls,  the  stable  crew  may  now  collect  them, 
and  be  ready  to  fill  them  quickly  after  the  arrival  of  the 
stable  wagon.  The  delay  may  be  long  enough  to  justify 
unsaddling  and  allowing  the  horses  to  graze  and  roll  under 
the  individual  care  of  the  troopers. 

36.  When  the  wagons  arrive,  the  kitchen  wagon  is 
halted  near  the  kitchen,  and  the  stable  wagon  near  the 
picket  line.  The  next  step  depends  upon  the  presence  of  a 
fireless  cooker.  If  you  have  one,  and  it  be  after  eleven 
o'clock,  the  following  steps  will  be  in  order :  open  a  tem- 
porary straddle-trench  rear,  stretch  the  picket  line,  tie  on 
the  line  and  feed ;  wash  up,  and  eat  a  hot  lunch,  then  a 
quiet  half  hour  or  so  for  a  pipe  and  digestion.  Then 
everybody  up  and  form  by  squads  to  pitch  camp.  If  not 
so  wise  as  to  be  provided  with  a  fireless  cooker  camp  must 
be  pitched  at  once. 

23 


354i  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

37.  Let  us  now  see  what  our  arrangement  is  for 
this.  The  first  sergeant  will  have  supervision,  like  the 
captain,  watching  out  for  good  discipline  and  quiet  effi- 
ciency. The  quartermaster  sergeant  is  probably  the  mess 
sergeant  also.  He  has  greater  responsibility,  and  by  add- 
ing the  duties  of  mess  sergeant,  may  receive  some  com- 
pensation in  the  six  dollars  additional  pay  allowed.  These 
duties  work  well  together ;  and  are,  now,  to  supervise,  first 
the  kitchen,  then  the  store  tent  and  supplies.  The-  stable 
sergeant  sees  to  the  picket  line  and  care  of  the  horses. 
This  leaves  the  four  permanent  squads.  There  are  two 
general  systems  of  using  these.  One,  to  have  the  same 
men  do  the  same  work  each  day;  the  other  to  alternate 
the  squads  daily.  In  the  former  you  can  soon  acquire  a 
degree  of  smoothness  and  dispatch  that  will  put  you  first 
in  any  competition.  But  it  is  not  advisable,  as  your  men 
do  not  get  equal  training,  or  equal  distribution  of  work ; 
bad  also  for  discipline.  It  is  better  that  the  squads  alter- 
nate daily  in  regular  order.  It  is  important  that  the  new 
details  go  into  effect  in  the  morning.  The  squad  leaders 
soon  come  to  know  without  being  told  what  their  work  is 
for  each  day. 

38.  Let  us  say,  then,  that  this  is  the  day  for  the  first 
squad  to  be  on  guard  and  to  load  and  unload  the  wagons. 
The  second  squad  to  take  care  of  the  officers'  tents  and 
rear.  The  third  squad  to  take  charge  of  the  kitchen  ;  and 
the  fourth  squad  to  see  to  the  troop  rear,  the  first  ser- 
geant's tent  and  store  tent. 

39.  The  same  men  of  the  first  squad  who  loaded 
the  wagons  in  the  morning  will  now  unload  them.  They 
know  where  the  property  is,  and  how  put  on.  No  one 
else  should  be  allowed  on  either  wagon.  Avoid  confusion 
by  eliminating  volunteers,  and  by  everybody  doing  only 
what  he  is  told  by  his  immediate  leader.  The  unloading 
detail  expedites  getting  the  property  into  the  hands  of  the 
men  sent  to  get  it.  These  men  do  not  take  things  off  the 
wagon  unless  told  to. 

40.  The  first  articles  off  the  kitchen  wagon  will  be 


I 


USING  SQUAD  SYSTEM  355 

the  mess  outfit,  the  range,  possibly  the  ration  box.  The 
third  squad  takes  these  and  the  kitchen  tentage  and 
utensils.  It  is  the  pride  of  every  troop  to  be  first  with  its 
kitchen  fire,  and  the  officers  always  note  the  chimney  that 
belches  smoke  first.  The  mess  sergeant  will  have  chosen 
the  exact  position  of  the  range,  and  the  cooks  will  be  ready 
to  assist  in  setting  it  up,  and  with  wood  to  start  the  fire. 
Three  men  of  the  third  squad  immediately  go  with  two 
boilers  and  two  buckets  to  bring  the  water  which  must  boil 
before  the  cofifee  is  made.  The  mess  sergeant  meantime 
tells  the  squad  leader  exactly  where  and  how  he  wants  the 
kitchen  canvas  put  up,  where  the  pit  is  to  be  dug  for  slops, 
what  is  to  be  done  about  wood  supply  and  additional 
water,  where  the  mess  box  and  other  supplies  are  to  go. 
When  the  third  squad  leaves,  the  kitchen  should  be  com- 
plete, and  it  should  be  the  squad  leader's  pride  to  make  it 
the  best  possible.  Everything  is  done  to  expedite  serving 
hot  and  clean  food.  Even  a  brush  windbreak  may  be 
necessary  for  the  kitchen  fire. 

41.  The  second  squad  takes  the  officers'  tents  and 
bedding  rolls,  its  own  mallet  and  spade,  and  proceeds  to 
put  up  the  officers'  tents,  ditch  them  if  the  captain  so 
directs,  open  the  bed  rolls,  put  up  the  cots,  and  open  the 
rolls  on  them.  They  do  not  make  the  beds.  They  get  a 
bucket  of  water,  driving  the  pins  for  the  wash  basin,  and 
in  general  arrange  the  tents  as  they  found  them  that  morn- 
ing when  they  packed  up.  They  make  a  straddle-trench 
rear,  covered  by  a  tent,  or  not,  as  the  captain  directs.  If 
the  officers  have  a  mess  chest  and  table,  they  place  them 
where  directed. 

42.  The  fourth  squad  sends  four  men  with  the  rear 
tent  and  spades  to  erect  the  troop  rear,  the  others  put  up 
the  first  sergeant's  tent,  put  in  the  field  desk,  and  arrange 
it  as  they  found  it  that  morning.  They  then  put  up  the 
store  tent  and  put  such  supplies  into  it  as  the  quarter- 
master sergeant  directs. 

43.  The  stable  crew  put  up  the  picket  line.  They 
then  fill  the  nose  bags  for  the  noon  feed,  and  the  horses 


356  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

are  fed  as  they  are  tied  on  the  line.  Circumstances  may 
exist,  especially  where  the  troop  is  part  of  a  squadron, 
which  will  make  it  advisable  for  the  line  to  be  put  up,  and 
the  horses  tied  thereon,  before  the  men  go  to  pitching  the 
camp.  In  this  case  the  squads  would  be  formed  again 
after  feeding,  so  that  the  above  system  could  be  carried 
on  under  control. 

44.  When  the  first  squad  has  completed  unloading 
the  wagons,  they  will  distribute  all  the  squad  tents,  pins, 
and  tent  poles  at  the  tent  sites  designated  for  the  re- 
spective squads* 

45.  Each  squad  will  have  its  tent,  sack  of  tent  pins, 
tent  poles,  mallet,  axe,  bucket,  lantern,  etc.,  plainly  marked 
so  that  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  ownership.  It  is 
found  most  serviceable  where  each  squad  leader  carries  in 
a  scabbard  on  his  saddle  a  folding  steel  axe,  or  bolo. 

46.  A  fundamental  rule  for  all  field  work  is  that 
while  work  is  being  done  the  men  shall  all  be  kept  to- 
gether under  their  immediate  leaders.  The  leader  then 
designates  certain  men  to  perform  certain  duties.  These 
men  do  their  work  and  return  immediately  to  the  forma- 
tion, reporting  to  the  leader  the  accomplishment  of  their 
task.  No  one  is  supposed  to  work  on  his  own  initiatjve 
where  system  prescribes  direction  and  furnishes  directors. 

47.  In  making  camp,  no  one  need  stand  about  idle. 
The  squad  leader  can  find  work  for  all.  The  surplus  men 
in  the  squad  might  well  be  sent  out  to  cut  three  green 
sticks,  two  crotched,  for  use  in  putting  up  the  squad  sad- 
dle rack.  Material  might  also  be  gotten  together  for  the 
squad  arm  rack  inside  the  tent. 

48.  When  each  squad  has  completed  its  assigfned 
task,  the  men  will  go  together  under  their  squad  leader  to 
put  their  horses  on  the  picket  line  and  feed  them,  if  this 
has  not  been  done  already  by  direction  of  the  captain. 
The  captain  will  have  directed  the  stable  sergeant  in  case 
he  wishes  the  horses  unsaddled  at  this  time.  They  prob- 
ably may  be,  and  the  men  may  bring  their  saddle  equip- 
ment with  them  back  to  their  tent. 


USING  SQUAD  SYSTEM  357 

49.  In  any  event  they  will  now  proceed  to  put  up 
their  squad  tent,  and  prepare  it  for  occupancy.  The  ques- 
tion of  ditching  will  be  decided  in  each  camp  by  the  cap- 
tain. Internal  arrangements  of  tents  may  be  prescribed  by 
the  captain  so  as  to  be  uniform  throughout  the  troop ;  or, 
even  better,  he  may  leave  all  this  to  the  individual  initiative 
of  the  squad  leader,  and  by  frequent  inspection  and  com- 
mendation and  comparison  stimulate  the  squad  leaders  to 
a  healthful  rivalry  in  making  their  tents  the  best. 

50.  By  working  thus  systematically,  you  will  find 
that  the  camp  has  been  put  in  shape  in  a  surprisingly  short 
time.  The  men  may  now  wash  up  and  go  to  lunch,  which 
should  be  ready  about  this  time,  knowing  that  they  will 
have  ample  time  for  rest  thereafter. 

51.  The  form  of  the  picket  line  may  be  the  usual 
straight  line  or  three  sides  of  a  square  open  toward  the 
troop.  If  a  ground  line,  it  may  be  laid  in  one  form  as 
easily  as  the  other.  Its  position  in  front  of  the  troop,  or 
in  prolongation  of  the  troop,  will  be  governed  by  local 
conditions.  The  former  has  the  advantage  that  no  sentinel 
need  be  posted  until  after  dark.  The  troopers  understand 
that  all  are  on  guard  all  the  time  as  far  as  assisting  a  horse 
in  trouble  is  concerned.  On  dusty  ground,  however,  this 
position  of  the  line  often  has  the  disadvantage  of  making  it 
disagreeable  for  the  men  at  their  tents. 

52.  Immediately  after  retreat  inspection,  the  first 
squad  will  be  reported  by  its  leader  to  the  captain  for 
guard  duty.  The  captain  inspects  it  and  gives  instruc- 
tions for  the  running  guard  that  night.  It  is  generally 
enough  for  sentinels  to  be  posted  from  right  after  dark 
until  reveille,  when  the  guard  relieves  itself.  This  stable 
guard  is  generally  the  only  guard  necessary  for  a  troop  in 
the  field.  The  sentinel  wears  his  pistol  and  carries  a 
lighted  lantern ;  if  an  improvident  cavalryman  without  a 
knife,  he  must  borrow  one  in  order  that  he  may  cut  a 
strap  in  an  emergency.  It  is  generally  true  that  each  man 
will  lose  but  one  hour's  sleep  during  the  night.  With 
disciplined  troops  these  men  post  themselves,  each  man 


858  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

before  he  goes  on  post  learning  who  reheves  him  and 
where  this  man  sleeps,  so  he  can  awaken  him  quietly  at  the 
end  of  his  tour.  In  some  cases  it  is  better  to  have  a  non- 
commissioned officer  awakened  each  time  the  relief  is 
changed.  The  sentinel's  orders  require  him  to  confirm  the 
number  of  horses  under  his  charge  when  he  comes  on  post, 
and  to  awaken  the  squad  leader  in  case  of  serious  trouble. 

53.  In  case  the  troop  is  part  of  a  squadron,  the 
above  system  is  applied  as  far  as  possible.  The  major 
will  have  selected  the  camp  site,  and  one  of  his  staff  will 
be  on  the  ground  to  show  each  guidon  sergeant  where  his 
troop  is  to  camp.  Upon  approaching  the  field,  the  captain 
sends  his  guidon  sergeant  ahead  for  this  purpose.  He  will 
then  halt  the  troop  on  the  guidon,  and  dismount  as  before, 
and  get  any  necessary  directions  from  the  major  before 
specifying  the  sites  for  the  various  parts  of  the  camp. 

54.  In  addition  to  the  work  above  described,  there 
is  now  introduced  the  question  of  taking  care  of  squadron 
headquarters.  This  can  best  be  done  by  letting  all  th,e 
work  at  headquarters  be  done  by  one  troop,  the  troops 
alternating  daily  for  this  duty.  Depending  upon  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  done  at  headquarters,  and  upon  the 
size  of  the  permanent  squads  in  the  troop,  each  troop  com- 
mander will  handle  this  task  to  the  best  advantage  of  his 
men.  It  may  be  that  when  his  turn  comes  he  can  make 
up  a  headquarters  detail  from  a  surplus  noncommis- 
sioned officer  and  surplus  men  from  the  different  squads, 
or  he  may  choose  to  divide  the  work  equitably,  and  let  a 
regular  squad  include  this  headquarters  work  as  part  of 
their  task  for  that  day.  Whichever  system  he  employs, 
the  same  men  who  packed  up  headquarters  in  the  morn- 
ing, would  now  be  sent  to  unload  and  set  up  the  tents,  and 
arrange  them  as  they  had  found  them  in  the  morning. 
For  the  credit  of  his  organization,  the  noncommissioned 
officer  in  charge  of  this  detail  should  take  pride  in  per- 
forming it  to  the  highest  satisfaction  of  the  headquarters 
officers. 

55.  Let  us  follow  the  breaking  of  camp  the  next 


BREAKING  CAMP  *  359 

morning.  To-day's  first  squad  takes  up  the  work  per- 
formed yesterday  by  the  second  squad.  It  takes  down  and 
packs  up  the  troop  officers'  tents,  their  rear  tent,  filling  in 
the  trench,  packs  bedding  rolls  and  other  property,  and 
takes  everything  to  the  kitchen  wagon.  As  they,  do  this 
the  men  realize  that  they  are  going  to  be  the  ones  to  put 
up  these  tents  and  arrange  them  when  they  make  camp  at 
noon,  and  are  careful  to  observe  how  things  are  arranged, 
and  careful  in  putting  away  loose  tent  pins,  and  to  see 
that  everything  is  so  packed  and  put  on  the  wagons  that 
it  may  be  recovered  and  unpacked  and  put  up  with  facility. 
To-day's  second  squad  now  takes  the  work  of  yesterday's 
third  squad  and  packs  up  the  kitchen  outfit,  governed  by 
the  same  considerations  above  mentioned  for  the  second 
squad.  In  the  same  way  to-day's  third  squad  takes  charge 
of  the  rear,  packing  the  tent,  filling  in  the  trench,  packing 
the  first  sergeant's  tent  and  the  store  tent.  And  yester- 
day's fourth  squad,  now  become  the  first  squad  for  to- 
day, loads  the  wagons.  It  is  important  in  this  connection 
that  one  man  be  permanently  detailed  to  supervise  the 
loading  of  each  wagon,  preferably  the  quartermaster 
sergeant  the  kitchen  wagon,  and  the  stable  sergeant,  or 
one  of  his  men,  the  stable  wagon.  Members  of  the  squad 
detailed  to  load  work  under  the  directions  of  these  men. 

At  squadron  headquarters  also  there  must  be  one  man 
permanently  in  charge  of  loading  the  wagon,  probably 
one  of  the  nonconmiissioned  staif. 

56.  After  last  evening's  feed  the  stable  crew  col- 
lected the  nose  bags  and  filled  them  for  this  morning's 
feed.  At  reveille  the  troop  falls  in  without  arms,  but  with 
currycomb  and  brush.  And  immediately  after  reporting, 
the  first  sergeant  marches  them,  without  counting  fours,  to 
the  picket  line,  where  each  takes  a  feed  bag  and  then  takes 
his  place  in  rear  of  his  horse,  and  at  the  command  of  the 
first  sergeant  all  feed  simultaneously.  The  men  then  clean 
their  horses,  the  whole  process  not  occupying  more  than 
five  or  ten  minutes.  The  men  then  wash  up  for  breakfast 
and  make  their  individual  rolls  and  generally  prepare  for 


360  CAMPS  AND  BIVOUACS 

the  march.  After  breakfast,  sick  call  and  police  call,  the 
captain  has  signals  sounded  on  the  trumpet  for  each  step 
in  breaking  camp.  At  the  last  note  of  '*  the  general  "  the 
men's  tents  should  fall  simultaneously  toward  the  officers' 
tents,  and  the  squads  hasten  to  pack  them  and  carry  them 
together  with  the  tent  poles  and  pins  to  the  wagon.  If  the 
troop  be  part  of  the  squadron  enough  men  from  the  squad 
in  charge  of  the  officers'  tents  must  be  sent  to  drop  these 
tents  simultaneously  with  the  men's,  in  the  direction  of 
headquarters. 

57.  Unless  especially  directed  to  do  so,  no  one  will 
commence  saddling  up  until  "  boots  and  saddles."  In 
forming  the  troop  for  the  march,  some  captains  prefer  to 
reward  celerity  by  allowing  the  first  men  ready  to  fall  in 
on  the  right  of  the  troop,  where  they  may  march  free 
from  dust.  This  often  results  in  carelessness  in  saddling 
and  consequent  injury  to  the  horse.  Far  better  to  have 
the  men  form  by  squads  and  to  form  the  troop  so  that  the 
squads  alternate  in  the  column  daily  in  regular  order  as 
their  duties  change.  For  example,  each  morning  the  squad 
for  guard  duty  that  day  might  form  on  the  right  of  the 
troop.  A  troop  that  has  any  esprit  will  work  rapidly 
enough  at  this  time,  and  it  is  so  much  better  to  give  care- 
ful attention  to  saddling  up,  particularly  where  there  are 
recruits  in  the  troop  whose  work  in  saddling  should  be 
supervised  by  experienced  men,  who  may  even  have  to 
assist  them. 

58.  The  stable  crew  should  be  authorized  to  saddle 
up  at  will.  The  troopers  remove  their  horses  from  the 
line  at  "  boots  and  saddles,"  and  the  stable  crew  busy 
themselves  in  taking  up  the  line  and  pins,  and  packing 
them  on  the  stable  wagon.  The  last  thing  the  captain  is 
going  to  do  before  leaving  will  be  to  make  a  careful  in- 
spection of  all  the  ground,  including  the  rears,  to  see  that 
everything  is  in  perfect  police.  If  it  is  not,  the  troop  will 
be  dismounted  and  sent  to  police  it.  It  behooves  every- 
one, therefore,  to  observe  the  rule  for  policing,  which  is  to 
"  keep  the  ground  policed." 


LEAVING  CAMP  361 

59.  The  cooks  may  ride,  one  on  each  wagon,  with 
the  driver.  The  quartermaster  sergeant  or  the  stable  ser- 
geant, and  at  least  two  men,  generally  from  the  stable 
crew,  regularly  march  with  the  wagons  to  assist  in  emer- 
gencies. 

60.  Injured  or  sick  horses  are  led  in  rear  of  the 
wagons.  When  the  troop  is  part  of  a  larger  command, 
these  led  horses  from  the  various  troops  are  assembled 
in  one  group  and  led  behind  the  whole  wagon  train,  not 
intermingled  throughout  the  train,  each  behind  its  own 
troop  wagons. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

SUPPLY  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

1.  The  War  Department  has  accepted  a  fundamen- 
tally new  system  of  supply  for  troops  in  campaign.  It  is 
based  on  the  idea  that  instead  of  the  fighting  troops  having 
to  give  time  and  energy  to  providing  their  own  food  and 
forage,  they  shall  be  left  free  to  give  all  their  attention  to 
fighting  the  enemy,  and  their  supplies  shall  be  handed  to 
them  each  evening  by  troops  especially  engaged  in  this 
important  work.  These  latter  troops  are  known  as  the 
Line  of  Communications;  and  their  commander,  in  con- 
stant touch  with  the  commander  of  the  fighting  forces,  uses 
them  for  the  one  purpose  of  getting  the  supplies  up  each 
evening.  This  will  be  supremely  important  work  and  will 
call  for  the  highest  executive  ability  and  often  for  in- 
domitable perseverance  and  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  of- 
ficers and  men. 

2.  In  this  system  all  wagons  other  tlian  the  combat 
train  are  assembled  in  regimental  trains,  no  company  or 
troop  having  a  wagon  of  its  own.  In  an  infantry  regi- 
ment, this  train  consists  of  12  wagons,  8  for  rations,  4 
for  baggage.  In  a  cavalry  regiment,  it  consists  of  22 
wagons,  5  for  baggage,  and  17  for  rations  and  forage. 
Each  organization  is  allotted  its  space  in  one  of  the  bag- 
gage wagons.  All  the  loads  of  the  supply  wagons  are  in 
the  exclusive  charge  of  the  regimental  quartermaster. 

3.  At  the  close  of  the  day's  march  or  fight,  a  supply 
wagon  will  come  to  each  organization  and  deliver  to  it 
one  day's  ration,  to  be  used  for  the  next  three  meals,  a 
hot  supper,  hot  breakfast,  and  cooked  lunch  the  next  day. 
On  any  given  day  all  organizations  in  the  command  will 
have  exactly  the  same  food  supply.  This  deprives  the 
commander  of  that  cherished  function,  so  valuable  in 
"  leadership,"  of  providing  particularly  for  his  own  men ; 
but  it  leaves  him  free  to  give  attention  to  other  matters, 

362 


LINE  OF  COMMUNICATIONS  363 

and  provides  better  for  those  men  under  officers  incom- 
petent or  too  shiftless  to  make  proper  provision. 

In  the  same  way  a  supply  wagon  will  deliver  each  even- 
ing a  day's  forage,  for  the  two  feeds  in  camp  and  the  next 
day's  noon  feed  to  be  carried  in  the  feed  bags.  Both 
ration  and  forage  wagons  return  to  the  train  as  soon  as  the 
issues  have  been  made. 

Likewise  the  baggage  wagons  will  join  the  troops  each 
evening  and  distribute  tentage,  cooking  utensils,  etc.,  and 
remain  with  the  troops  until  reloaded  next  morning. 

4.  This  system  contemplates  reducing  to  the  mini- 
mum the  amount  of  transportation  with  the  fighting 
forces,  a  most  important  consideration.  It  means  that 
each  officer  and  man  will  carry  an  exactly  prescribed 
amount  of  baggage  and  equipment,  not  one  brush,  shirt 
or  bottle  more,  or  less.  This  will  be  a  great  gain  for  effi- 
ciency— and  should  be  an  interesting  and  instructive  thing 
to  practice  on  some  peace  maneuver.  Let  the  men  know 
they  are  going  out  stripped  to  fighting  conditions — and 
then  every  one  exercise  his  ingenuity  to  make  the  tour  as 
comfortable  as  possible  under  these  conditions. 

5.  Under  this  system  the  "  savings  privilege  "  ceases 
to  operate  as  soon  as  the  troops  reach  the  mobilization 
camp.  That  is,  the  organization  no  longer  gets  a  cash 
credit  from  which  to  buy  rations.  The  supreme  com- 
mander from  now  on  prescribes  what  the  daily  ration  shall 
be ;  and  all  get  the  same.  It  is  to  be  expected,  however, 
that  where  government  transportation  is  not  involved,  or- 
ganization commanders  will  still  exercise  their  function 
of  adding  to  the  mess  as  they  can  from  outside  sources. 

6.  While  this  system  will  apply  to  large  forces 
operating  in  the  field,  it  cannot  be  used  with  smaller  de- 
tachments. When  the  company  or  battalion  operates  alone 
it  must  have  its  own  wagons,  and  supply  itself. 

Whenever  conditions  make  it  impossible  for  the  Line 
of  Communication^  to  deliver  supplies,  the  old  system  must 
be  resorted  to.  And  it  is  this  old  system  that  requires 
training  and  individual  understanding  on  the  part  of  the 


364  SUPPLY  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

organization  commander.  For  this  reason  the  following 
paragraphs  are  of  value  for  guidance  when  you  are  operat- 
ing without  supply  troops,  as  you  are  most  likely  to  be 
doing  in  peace  time  training. 

7.  Your  men  and  horses  must  be  properly  fed  three 
times  a  day,  and  it  is  intended  they  shall  be.  The  Govern- 
ment most  liberally  provides  for  this  ;  and  it  is  strictly  up 
to  the  organization  commander  to  see  that  his  men  are 
properly  fed. 

The  system  of  garrison  supply  is  simple,  and  amounts 
to  this,  your  ration  return  gives  you  a  cash  credit  with  the 
commissary  officer.  In  other  words,  you  are  liberally  sup- 
plied with  cash  for  the  purchase  of  food  supplies,  with  tiie 
one  condition  that  you  are  required  to  purchase  from  the 
commissary  officer  whatever  you  need  of  those  articles 
that  he  has  on  hand  for  issue  to  troops — beyond  that  you 
may  buy  in  the  open  market.  It  is  necessary  then  that  the 
organization  commander  and  the  supply  officer  work  to- 
gether with  perfect  understanding,  and  always  from  one 
to  three  days  ahead  of  time  for  the  supply  of  troop 
messes.  In  case  of  the  failure  of  the  commissary  to  fur- 
nish supplies  at  any  time,  it  is  absurd  for  the  organization 
commander  to  sit  down  helplessly  and  join  his  men  in 
grumbling  and  cursing  out  the  commissary,  it  is  his  job 
rather  to  get  busy  at  once  and  find  suitable  supplies  either 
at  a  farm  house  or  at  a  grocery  store,  buying  them  for 
the  use  of  his  men,  taking  proper  receipts,  and  reporting 
this  action  to  the  proper  authority.  The  one  foundation 
on  which  to  build  troop  spirit  and  efficiency  is  a  good  troop 
mess ;  and  it  should  be  the  captain's  most  serious  daily 
care. 

8.  The  first  step,  however,  is  to  be  sure  that  you 
have  submitted  proper  ration  returns,  then  that  you  have 
notified  the  supply  officer  in  ample  time  what  supplies  you 
will  want ;  next  see  that  each  of  your  men  always  has 
with  him  the  prescribed  two  reserve  rations.  These  con- 
sist in  bacon,  hard  bread,  sugar  and  coflfee,  and  should  be 
taken  from  the  regular  ration,  and  issued  to  the  indi- 


INDEPENDENT  SUPPLY  365 

viduals  upon  going  in  the  field,  and  should  always  be 
replaced  as  soon  as  possible  after  being  used.  With  the 
liberal  ration  allowance,  and  the  authority  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  organization  commander,  it  is  unreasonable 
that  in  this  land  of  plenty  men  should  ever  have  to  go 
hungry,  and  it  will  be  the  fault  of  their  immediate  com- 
manding officer  if  they  do. 

9.  Every  officer  and  noncommissioned  officer  should 
be  sure  that  he  understands  the  details  of  the  ration  return, 
and  be  sure  in  his  own  mind  of  his  rights  and  his  respon- 
sibility in  the  matter  of  supplying  his  men,  for  at  any  time 
in  service  anyone  of  these  men  may  find  himself  alone, 
with  the  responsibility  of  caring  for  a  group  of  men. 

10.  The  fundamental  necessity  for  successful  supply 
is  planning  ahead,  knowing  to-day  what  you  are  going  to 
need  to-morrow,  or  at  the  next  point  of  supply.  For 
example,  on  the  march  the  company  commander  will  notify 
the  commissary  each  day  what  quantity  and  kind  of  fresh 
meat,  bread,  etc.,  he  will  want  at  the  next  camp.  This 
enables  the  commissary  to  prepare  for  its  delivery  and 
proper  issue.  You  should  look  upon  the  commissary  as  a 
purchasing  agent  for  you,  not  as  a  wholesale  grocer  and 
butcher  who  always  has  on  hand  whatever  you  may  desire 
at  the  moment — you  and  he  have  got  to  plan  ahead  for 
what  you  will  want.  This  makes  it  important  that  com- 
manding officers  should  notify  their  subordinates  of  their 
contemplated  movements,  and  again,  that  they  should  not 
change  their  plans  after  once  announcing  them,  unless  it 
is  absolutely  necessary. 

11.  Arrangements  should  be  made  so  that  when  on 
the  march  men  may  be  given  their  mid-day  meal  almost 
immediately  after  reaching  camp,  and  the  most  helpful 
auxiliary  to  this  is  the  fireless  cooker.  One  of  these  can 
be  easily  made  from  a  good-sized  dry  goods  box,  padded 
with  hay  held  in  place  by  old  saddle  blankets,  leaving 
room  for  two  large  milk  cans  that  will  carry  enough  food 
and  coffee  for  the  command.  The  cooks  will  fill  these 
with  boiling  hot  contents  after  supper  the  night  before, 


366  SUPPLY  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

put  them  in  the  box,  stuffiilg  hay  in  about  them,  and  close 
it ;  this  box  will  be  loaded  at  the  rear  end  of  the  wagon, 
and  a  hot  meal  may  be  served  the  instant  the  wagon 
arrives  in  camp.  Many  troops  in  the  regular  service 
take  a  light  spring  wagon  with  them  in  the  field,  which 
carries  the  fireless  cooker,  picket  line,  and  other  small  con- 
veniences, and  reaches  camp  ahead  of  the  command.  When 
the  troop  arrives  the  picket  line  is  ready  to  be  stretched 
and  the  lunch  ready  to  be  served.  This  adds  tremen- 
dously to  the  comfort  of  the  men  and  the  esprit  of  the 
organization. 

12.  Where  the  fireless  cooker  may  not  be  carried 
near  enough  to  the  troop  for  use  at  lunch  time,  and  the 
day's  work  is  going  to  make  it  impracticable  to  have  lunch 
before  late  afternoon,  the  organization  commander  will 
anticipate  this  by  having  the  cooks  prepare  bacon  sand- 
wiches, which  the  men  will  carry  individually,  for  the 
next  lunch. 

13.  Remembering  how  hungry  and  "  raw  "  you  have 
been  during  that  long  hour's  work  from  eleven  to  twelve, 
if  work  is  to  be  continued  past  the  mid-day  meal,  have 
the  lunch  served  at  eleven  instead  of  twelve.  The  men 
will  not  be  so  ravenous,  and  it  will  be  more  satisfying. 
They  will  be  spared  the  strain  of  that  last  hours  work 
under  trying  circumstances,  and  will  go  to  work  after  this 
timely  lunch  in  much  better  spirits. 

14.  It  is  equally  important  that  the  horses  be  prop- 
erly fed.  The  equivalent  to  the  lunch  for  the  men  is  about 
six  pounds  of  oats  tied  in  the  bottom  of  the  nose  bag 
and  carried  on  the  cantle  of  the  saddle  for  the  mid-day 
feed. 

15.  The  emergency  ration  has  been  given  up.  It  is 
now  directed  that  each  man  carry  two  reserve  rations, 
under  the  same  regulations  as  formerly  applied  to  the 
emergency  ration,  except  that  the  bacon  component  is 
to  be  renewed  frequently  enough  to  prevent  deterioration. 
Except  in  an  emergency  to  justify  it,  it  is  never  to  be 
used  without  the  authority  of  a  commissioned  officer. 


INDIVIDUAL  COOKING  367 

Each  soldier  must  always  have  it  with  him,  and  if  it 
has  been  used  or  lost  he  should  report  the  fact  at  once, 
and  have  it  replaced. 

i6.  Particularly  in  the  cavalry,  where  patrol  work 
separates  men  from  their  mess,  it  is  important  that  every 
man  know  enough  about  cooking  to  prepare  his  own 
meals.  He  should  be  able  to  make  good  coffee,  and  to 
use  his  bacon  to  the  best  advantage,  not  only  in  the  cook- 
ing of  the  bacon  itself,  but  in  using  the  bacon  grease  to 
fry  potatoes,  onions,  make  egg  bread,  etc.  Practical  in- 
struction should  include  intelligent,  interested  training  in 
individual  cooking.  In  certain  organizations  it  is  the 
rule  during  tbe  winter  training  for  say  six  designated 
men  each  week  to  prepare  their  own  evening  meal. 
They  receive  the  articles  of  the  ration,  and  each  man 
actually  cooks  his  own  food  under  the  supervision  of 
some  practical  man  who  knows  how  to  cook  satisfactorily 
under  field  conditions.  The  first  consideration,  which  so 
many  miss,  is  that  the  fire  be  small. 

17.  Every  consideration  seems  to  point  to  the  great 
advantage  of  company  officers  getting  their  meals  from 
the  organization  kitchen  in  field  service.  The  officer 
responsible  for  the  excellence  of  the  mess  will  much  better 
appreciate  its  excellence  if  he  subsists  exclusively  on  it. 
When  it  comes  time  to  break  camp  in  the  morning,  the 
officers  will  be  through  with  breakfast  at  the  same  time 
as  the  men,  and  in  position  to  exercise  their  proper  func- 
tions of  supervising  the  work  of  the  men  in  breaking 
camp.  Where  the  officers  have  a  mess  of  their  own, 
the  temptation  is  always  present  to  be  late  at  breakfast, 
and  particularly  is  it  true  that  the  loading  of  the  company 
wagon  is  often  delayed  waiting  for  the  officers'  mess  to ' 
be  cleaned  up,  packed  up,  and  loaded.  This  is  a  constant 
source  of  annoyance  to  the  men  of  the  company,  and  an 
unreasonable  drain  on  their  esprit. 

18.  When  the  men  have  a  poor  breakfast,  sloppy 
coffee,  cold,  half-cooked,  greasy  food,  they  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  work  cheerfully  through  the  long  hours  of  the 


368  SUPPLY  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

forenoon.  If  their  commanding  officer  has  partaken  of 
the  same  breakfast,  he  will  appreciate  their  feelings,  and 
avoid  making  too  great  demands  on  their  good  nature. 
Even  better,  he  will  probably  get  busy  and  see  that  they 
have  a  proper  breakfast  the  next  morning.  If  a  bat- 
talion or  squadron  headquarters  mess  is  necessary,  it 
should  be  kept  as  small  in  number  as  possible,  and  pro- 
vided with  such  service  that  it  can  be  cleared  up  and  out 
of  the  way  so  as  not  to  delay  the  movement  of  the  troops 
in  the  morning. 

19.  It  is  necessary  in  the  field  that  each  soldier  wash 
his  own  dishes  after  each  meal.  The  greatest  care  must 
be  exercised  not  to  scatter  food  or  greasy  water  on  the 
ground  about  the  kitchen.  This  is  one  of  the  necessary 
disagreeable  field  duties  for  the  men.  Where  practicable 
the  use  of  paper  dishes  is  a  great  saving  all  around.  When 
the  man  has  finished  his  meal,  he  has  only  to  put  the  plate 
on  the  kitchen  fire,  and  wash  his  cup,  knife,  fork,  and 
spoon.  The  cooks  should  provide  at  least  two  good  sized 
receptacles  of  hot  water  for  this  purpose. 

20.  The  fundamental  principle  for  the  mess  in  the 
field  should  be  plenty  of  plain  food,  well  cooked.  The 
men  are  taking  an  unusual  amount  of  exercise  in  the  open 
air,  and  will  have  good  appetites  which  crave  hearty  food. 
Salads,  desserts,  and  fussy  dishes  are  entirely  out  of 
place.  Cucumber  pickles  to  supply  acid,  and  bread  and 
molasses  to  satisfy  the  craving  for  sweets,  are  generally 
most  acceptable.  Everything  about  the  kitchen  must  be 
scrupulously  clean.  What  we  want  to  avoid  is  feeding 
flies,  and  remember  that  a  fly  feeds  not  on  a  half-pound 
hunk  of  meat  or  bread,  but  on  the  invisible  particles  that 
are  carried  in  the  waste  water  from  washing  dishes,  etc. 
Every  man  in  the  organization  must  make  it  his  personal 
job  to  prevent  feeding  flies  and  encouraging  their  presence. 

Transportation 

21.  As  shown  above,  the  new  system  of  supply 
affects  the  use  of  transportation,  and  as  in  that  case  so 


WAGON  TRANSPORTATION  369 

here,  the  following  paragraphs  apply  to  the  use  of  wagons 
by  troops  operating  independently  of  the  Line  of 
Communications. 

22.  Troops  in  the  field  are  dependent  for  supplies 
on  their  wagon  transportation.  More  hardships  come 
from  failure  and  delay  in  transportation,  than  from  any 
other  cause.  It  should  be  the  interest  of  every  individual 
to  assist  in  every  way  the  success  and  smooth  working  of 
the  train.  The  standard  wagon  is  the  four-mule  army 
wagon,  whose  normal  load  on  good  roads  is  3,000  pounds. 

23.  The  proper  loading  of  these  wagons  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  every  soldier  should  understand 
generally  how  to  load  a  wagon.  The  fundamental  prin- 
ciples are  that  the  heaviest  articles  go  on  the  bottom,  and 
that  those  things  which  are  needed  first  upon  arrival  in 
camp,  are  so  placed  as  to  be  unloaded  first.  This  sounds 
easy,  but  the  actual  loading  of  the  various  articles  so  as 
to  avoid  shifting  and  to  carry  safely,  requires  practice  and 
experience.  While  every  man  should  know  something  of 
this,  it  is  advisable  to  have  one  skilled  man  continuously 
in  charge  of  the  loading.  This  is  an  important  part  of 
practical  instruction. 

24.  Draft  animals  should  have  the  best  of  care,  both 
in  camp  and  on  the  march.  The  organization  com- 
mander should  take  special  interest  in  them.  He  will  also 
interest  himself  in  seeing  that  the  harness  is  kept  clean  and 
soft,  and  in  good  condition,  and  that  the  wagons  are  in 
good  repair,  wheels  greased  daily,  and  everything  about 
his  transport  in  the  best  possible  condition  to  make  the 
march. 

25.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  amount 
of  supplies,  baggage,  etc.,  to  be  hauled,  be  consistently 
regulated  to  the  amount  of  transportation  available.  For 
any  particular  service,  the  exact  articles  of  clothing,  equip- 
ment, and  troop  equipage  to  be  carried,  should  be  pre- 
scribed before  starting.  It  is  then  the  duty  of  the  organi- 
zation commander  to  see  that  these  regulations  are  exactly 
complied  with,  the  men  carrying  neither  more  nor  less  than 

24 


870  SUPPLY  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

the  prescribed  amount.  While  the  construction  of  elabor- 
ate mess-chests,  etc.,  shows  commendable  zeal  on  the  part 
of  mess  sergeants,  their  presence  in  the  field  is  a  curse 
to  transportation  and  efficiency.  The  troop  commander 
must  ruthlessly  leave  them  behind.  He  and  his  officers 
must  join  this  labor-saving  class  by  doing  without  trunks 
and  other  heavy  baggage. 

26.  While  the  train  is  en  route  it  should  be  the 
interest  of  everyone  connected  with  it,  including  the  men 
of  the  escort,  to  assist  in  every  way  in  making  the  march 
as  easy  and  as  expeditious  as  possible.  No  one  is  allowed 
to  ride  on  the  wagons  without  proper  authority.  Where 
a  load  shifts  and  the  wagon  has  to  be  reloaded,  the  escort 
will  assist.  If  a  wagon  breaks  down  they  will  assist  in 
transferring  the  load  to  other  wagons.  Wagons  should 
always  be  halted  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  road  to 
allow  free  passage  to  others. 

27.  The  principles  of  traction,  proper  hooking  of  the 
horses  into  wagons,  and  proper  driving  of  the  teams,  are 
matters  of  great  importance.  Where  a  driver  is  seen 
abusing  his  team  or  exhibiting  gross  ignorance  or  careless- 
ness in  handling  them,  it  should  always  be  reported  to  the 
organization  commander,  who  will  take  steps  to  remedy 
it.  So  much  depends  upon  the  safe  and  prompt  arrival 
of  the  train,  and  the  speed  of  the  train  will  be  that  of  its 
slowest  wagon,  so  everyone  should  be  interested  in  the 
success  of  every  wagon,  no  matter  whose. 

28.  Whenever  lightened  loads,  road  conditions,  etc., 
make  it  practicable,  commanding  officers  will  take  occa- 
sion to  relieve  the  men  and  horses,  or  to  relieve  par- 
ticularly those  who  are  not  up  to  the  standard  of  strength, 
of  the  burden  of  carrying  part  of  their  equipment,  by 
putting  it  in  the  wagons. 

The  operations  of  cavalry  are  likely  to  require  troops 
to  move  without  wagon  transportation.  They  may  even 
have  to  go  without  a  pack  train.  It  is  practicable  to  pro- 
vide for  this  by  packing  on  the  army  saddle,  on  led  horses, 
the  absolutely  necessary  supplies  and  equipment ;  a  picket 


TRAVEL  BY  RAILROAD  371 

ground  line,  rations,  and  a  grill  for  the  kitchen  fire,  with 
boiler  and  pans.  Many  troops  keep  this  equipment  with 
the  necessary  attachments  for  the  saddle  all  ready 
prepared. 

29.  Travel  by  Railroad. — To  make  entraining  and 
detraining  expeditious  and  successful  the  following  con- 
siderations must  be  observed  by  all :  Troops  should  re- 
main in  ranks.  All  work  should  be  done  by  designated 
details  who  should  go  and  do  exactly  what  told  and  then 
return  to  ranks,  the  man  in  charge  reporting  its  accom- 
plishment. Men  should  not  do  anything  without  explicit 
instructions.  This  is  an  occasion  for  absolute  direction 
and  control  by  officers.  Confusion  and  generally  delay 
are  the  invariable  results  where  men  attempt  to  work  on 
their  own  initiative. 

30.  In  entraining,  the  inspection  of  the  cars,  their 
proper  equipment  and  the  arrangement  of  all  facilities  for 
loading  are  the  proper  functions  of  the  quartermaster. 
The  commanding  officer,  having  acquainted  himself  with 
all  facilities,  will  carefully  arrange  in  his  own  mind  the 
details  of  how  his  command  can  best  be  loaded.  He  will 
then  give  detailed  instructions  to  his  subordinate  com- 
manders, and  assure  himself  that  they  all  understand  their 
various  parts  and  places  before  the  troops  make  any 
movement  toward  entraining.  He  should  thereafter  insist 
upon  quiet,  system,  and  discipline.  The  presence  of  in- 
dividuals standing  about  the  platforms  or  tracks  is  a  sure 
indication  of  lack  of  system  and  discipline,  and  only  leads 
to  confusion.  Men  should  be  in  ranks,  actually  working 
or  else  in  their  place  on  board  the  train, 

31.  In  loading  horses,  the  four  men  detailed  inside 
the  car,  two  for  each  end,  should  be  carefully  selected  for 
their  known  horse-sense,  strength  and  ability  to  handle 
horses.  The  quieter  horses  should  be  put  in  the  centre  of 
the  car  opposite  the  doors.  Where  stalls  are  not  provided, 
horses  should  be  packed  into  the  car  closely,  one  rule  being, 
after  the  car  is  filled  pinch  in  another  horse  for  good  meas- 
ure.    If  the  journey  be  any  distance  the  horses'  docks 


872  SUPPLY  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

should  be  wrapped  to  avoid  rubbing  the  hair  out.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  these  wrappings  be  not  tight  enough  to 
impede  circulation.  The  question  of  tying  the  horses  is 
open  to  argument,  with  the  preponderance  in  favor  of 
leaving  the  horses  loose  in  the  cars,  packed  in  alternately 
head  to  tail. 

32.  The  senior  noncommissioned  officer  in  each  pas- 
senger coach  is  responsible  for  the  good  order  within  his 
coach ;  he  will  see  that  proper  police  regulations  are  ob- 
served and  his  car  kept  clean.  If  necessary,  guards  are 
stationed  at  each  door  to  prevent  men  riding  on  the  plat- 
forms, and  leaving  the  car  without  authority.  At  the 
various  stops  men  should  never  leave  the  car  without 
authority. 

33.  In  detraining,  the  commanding  officer  and  his 
staff  will  be  the  only  ones  to  leave  the  train  upon  reaching 
the  destination.  He  will  investigate  facilities  for  unload- 
ing, select  places  for  company  assemblies,  picket  lines  if 
necessary,  baggage,  etc.,  and  will  work  out  in  his  own  mind 
the  detailed  system  in  accordance  with  conditions  as  he 
finds  them  for  unloading  his  command  most  expeditiously 
and  smoothly.  He  will  then  instruct  his  subordinate  com- 
manders, and  when  they  know  each  what  he  is  to  do,  will 
give  orders  to  detrain.  Again  it  is  important  that  the 
troops  keep  in  ranks  and  that  work  be  done  by  designated 
details.  An  officer  should  inspect  each  car  as  soon  as  the 
troops  leave  it,  both  for  its  proper  police  and  condition, 
and  to  see  that  nothing  has  been  left  behind. 

34.  In  unloading  the  horses,  a  detail  should  go  to 
the  horse  car  to  receive  the  horses  as  fast  as  they  can  be 
led  out,  and  lead  them  to  the  picket  line  or  ground  desig- 
nated for  saddling  up,  where  they  will  be  tied  up  or 
handed  over  to  horse-holders.  One  man  should  lead  two 
horses.  It  is  important  that  this  detail  keep  the  horses 
moving  as  fast  as  they  can  be  delivered.  The  horses  hav- 
ing been  assembled,  and  the  horse  equipment  unloaded  and 
arranged,  the  organization  will  saddle  up  at  the  command 
of  its  commanding  officer.     No  individual  should  saddle 


TRAVEL  BY  RAILROAD  373 

up  before  this  command  is  given,  unless  especially  directed 
to  do  so.  Every  individual,  officer  or  man,  should  be  care- 
ful to  keep  passageways  free,  and  by  carrying  out  strictly 
the  instructions  as  to  the  designated  place  for  saddling, 
etc.,  avoid  interfering  with  the  work  of  other  men  or 
organizations. 

35.  In  preparing  for  travel  by  rail  the  commanding 
officer  must  prescribe  exactly  what  shall  be  taken  and 
how  it  shall  be  packed  for  transport,  and  these  regulations 
must  be  carefully  observed.  It  is  particularly  important 
that  the  men  carry  into  the  coaches  with  them  exactly  what 
has  been  prescribed,  no  more,  no  less,  and  that  the 
packages  containing  their  equipment,  whether  individual 
or  squad,  be  made  up  and  marked  exactly  as  prescribed. 

36.  When  a  railroad  station,  at  which  troops  would 
naturally  entrain,  is  occupied  or  threatened  by  a  crowd 
or  mob,  the  commanding  officer  should  cause  the  station 
to  be  cleared  of  people,  or  cause  sufficient  ground  near  the 
station  to  be  cleared  for  the  reception  of  his  command 
and  the  train.  He  should  then  have  the  cars  run  inside  his 
line  of  guards,  and  proceed  to  entrain  his  men ;  the  various 
military  units  being  kept  together  so  far  as  practicable. 

Where  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  railway  sta- 
tion at  the  destination  will  be  obstructed  by  a  crowd  or 
mob,  the  train  should  be  stopped  before  reaching  it,  and  a 
patrol  sent  out.  If  necessary  the  troops  may  be  detrained 
outside,  but  as  near  the  station  as  practicable. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

SANITATION 

I.  This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  helpful 
subjects  for  your  study,  a  thorough  understanding  of 
which  will  be  of  value  to  you  in  civil  life  as  well.  Since 
the  terrible  experiences  of  our  camps  in  '98,  the  whole 
service  has  recognized  the  necessity  for  intelligent  con- 
sideration of  the  rules  of  sanitation  in  all  field  work ;  until 
now  it  is  true  that  our  largest  concentration  camps,  even 
under  the  unfavorable  physical  conditions  of  the  border 
and  of  the  tropics,  are  models  for  healthful  living,  and 
their  records  show  a  lower  sick  rate  than  any  city  in  the 
country. 

Sanitation  is  the  initial  care  of  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment, and  when  commanding  officers  carry  out  its  recom- 
mendations we  may  expect  satisfactory  results.  Too 
often,  however,  conditions  of  the  service  make  full  com- 
pliance impossible,  and  a  compromise  between  expediency 
and  the  ideal  must  result.  Fortunate  indeed  is  that 
command  in  which  the  surgeon  and  commanding  officer  are 
frankly  working  together  to  guard  the  health  and  general 
welfare  of  the  men — for  either  alone  may  go  to  extremes 
that  are  injurious,  while  if  they  freely  advise  together  a 
happy  mean  should  result. 

a.  Any  system  of  sanitation  fails  that  does  not  enlist 
the  co-operation  of  the  line  officers  and  men.  Conditions 
are  conceivable  in  which  the  men  would  better  take  chances 
of  disease  than  be  worn  to  death  with  unusual  hardships 
in  trying  to  bring  about  ideal  sanitary  conditions.  Both 
parties  must  be  reasonable,  and  for  the  doctor  as  well  as 
the  commanding  officer  stands  that  fundamental  principle 
of  reducing  to  a  minimum  the  hardships  of  the  men. 

3.  When  making  a  camp,  the  surgeon  must  quickly 
decide  upon  any  sanitary  measures  he  may  recommend  to 
be  inaugurated,  so  that  the  necessary  fatigue  details  may 
374 


PRACTICAL  MEASURES 


375 


go  about  them  at  once.  This  work  should  be  cleaned  up 
with  the  rest,  so  that  when  the  men  have  composed  them- 
selves for  rest  or  diversion  they  will  not  be  upset  by  the 
arrival  of  an  orderly  announcing  a  fatigue  detail. 

4.  In  permanent  camps  elaborate  arrangements  may 
reasonably  be  made  for  the  sanitary  disposal  of  wastes, 
human  and  otherwise.  But  of  these,  the  best  will  be  such 
as  entail  the  least  disagreeable  fatigue  duty  on  the  men. 
The  daily  emptying  and  dis- 
infecting of  urinal  cans  is  of 
this  class.  If  the  nature  of  the 
soil  admits,  use  instead  the 
megaphone  urinals,  Fig.  19, 
conveniently  located,  which 
will  require  no  attention  after 
being  installed.  This  mega- 
phone urinal  is  made  as  fol- 
lows :  a  post  hole  or  well  is  dug 
of  suitable  size  conveniently 
near  the  tents ;  this  is  covered 
by  a  board  containing  a  round 
hole  about  two  or  three  inches 
in  diameter,  and  the  board 
covered  again  with  the  earth 
and  sod ;  a  funnel,  made  of 
heavy  oiled  cardboard  or  other 
impervious  material,  about  30 
inches  high  and  6  inches  wide 
at  the  upper  end,  is  set  upright 
in  this  hole  in  the  board,  packing  the  earth  around  it ;  a 
piece  of  board  laid  on  the  top  forms  a  cover.  The  whole 
thing  is  fly  proof,  odorless,  not  unsightly,  and  if  the 
soil  be  pervious,  does  not  require  further  attention  during 
the  camp. 

5.  There  should  always  exist  an  entente  cordiale  be- 
tween the  enlisted  men  and  the  surgeon.  The  best  in- 
terests of  the  service  demand  that  the  men  go  frankly  to 
the  surgeon  with  even  small  troubles,  which  left  without 


Fig. 19 


376  SANITATION 

treatment,  or  even  worse,  with  unskilled  treatment,  will 
often  develop,  and  incapacitate  the  man,  and  in  the  case 
of  infectious  disease,  may  even  cause  sickness  and  injury 
to  his  fellows.  It  is,  therefore,  part  of  the  surgeon's  task 
so  to  conduct  his  work  as  to  appeal  to  the  reasonableness 
of  the  men,  enlisting  their  loyal  support  of  his  sanitary 
precautions  and  making  them  regard  him  as  one  solely 
interested  in  their  welfare.  Too  often  the  reverse  is  true, 
and  this  may  be  the  fault  of  the  commanding  officers,  or 
of  the  surgeon — and  it  is  generally  the  fault  of  both. 

6.  Sanitation  on  the  march  and  in  camps  for  one 
night  only,  must  be  reasonable.  In  campaign,  lack  of 
transportation  will  generally  eliminate  all  elaborate  ar- 
rangements. It  is  well  to  learn  to  care  for  the  men 
on  a  practical  basis.  The  straddle  trench  is  one  sure  solu- 
tion. This  entails  little  work,  the  trench  being  the  width  of 
the  spade,  about  a  foot  deep  and  any  convenient  length. 
The  dirt  excavated  is  left  in  piles  at  the  ends,  ready  for 
individual  to  use  in  covering.  The  advantage  here  lies  in 
the  accuracy  and  completeness  with  which  he  covers  at  this 
short  range.    Not  so  in  the  old-fashioned  large  trenches. 

7.  Before  going  to  mobilization  camps  troops  are 
carefully  examined  to  detect  the  presence  of  contagious 
disease,  and  provision  made  that  all  be  vaccinated,  and 
protected  against  typhoid.  In  undertaking  any  expedition 
thereafter  great  care  should  always  be  exercised  to  ex- 
clude the  physically  unfit.  Be  hard-hearted  about  this, 
for  the  presence  of  one  weakling  may  mar  the  whole 
expedition. 

8.  Every  soldier  should  be  eager  to  learn  the  proper 
uses  of  the  first  aid  packet.  Not  only  may  such  knowledge 
enable  him  sometime  to  save  himself,  but  even  better,  it 
may  enable  him  to  minister  intelligently  to  a  wounded 
comrade.  Practical  instruction  will  give  him  opportunity 
to  learn  this.  He  should  not  be  satisfied  with  looking  on 
from  a  distance,  but  should  actually  handle,  and  be  sure 
he  understands  the  proper  use  of,  the  contents  of  this 


CARE  OF  HEALTH  877 

precious  package.  In  no  one  other  thing  has  the  Medical 
Department  done  so  much  to  alleviate  the  horrors  of  the 
battlefield.  Let  the  men  go  to  the  surgeon's  lecture  in  the 
above  spirit,  let  surgeon  force  himself  to  speak  the  men's 
language,  confine  himself  to  the  few  practical  uses  that  the 
men  may  remember,  and  instruction  in  first  aid  becomes  the 
vital,  interesting  thing  it  should  be.  Commanding  officers 
are  responsible  that  this  instruction  is  given. 

9.  This  knowledge  is  particularly  important  to  the 
cavalryman.  Infantry  and  artillery  may  generally  be  in 
touch  with  their  surgeons.  In  the  service  of  information 
it  is  accepted  that  the  cavalry  must  often  cut  loose  from 
their  ambulances,  and  the  advance  detachments  must  even 
go  on  without  surgeons.  The  cavalrymen  must  then  de- 
pend upon  themselves  for  medical  aid  and  attention  in  case 
of  injury  and  sickness.  And  when  you  realize  what  your 
feelings  would  be  in  the  presence  of  a  wounded  comrade, 
if  you  were  incapable  of  ministering  to  him  intelligently, 
you  will  now  give  attention  to  learning  what  you  may  of 
proper  treatments. 

ID.  On  the  march  the  regimental  surgeons  are  to  be 
found,  the  senior  with  the  regimental  commander,  and 
one  at  the  rear  of  each  battalion.  Each  organization  has 
a  litter,  generally  carried  on  the  combat  train.  The  regi- 
mental ambulance  follows  the  rear  of  its  own  regiment, 
unless  otherwise  directed.  A  man  falling  out  sick  is  given 
a  pass  showing  his  name,  company,  and  regiment,  and  is 
sent  to  the  surgeon  in  rear.  He  keeps  his  arms,  personal 
equipment  and  clothing,  and  if  mounted,  sends  back  his 
horse  and  equipment  by  the  man  who  accompanied  him. 

II.  In  combat  regimental  aid  stations  are  established 
by  regimental  surgeons,  one  for  each  regiment,  or  one  for 
each  battalion,  under  the  best  available  shelter  near  the 
firing  line.  Further  in  rear,  a  first  aid  station  is  established 
by  the  ambulance  company,  and  still  further  a  station  for 
the  slightly  wounded,  by  the  field  hospital,  in  case  these 
units  accompany  the  expedition.     To  the  most  convenient 


378  SANITATION 

of  these  the  wounded  direct  themselves,  or  are  carried  by 
the  sanitary  troops.  The  regimental  station  is  kept  as 
near  the  firing  line  as  possible,  advancing  with  it,  the  first 
aid  station  following. 

The  whole  system  of  caring  for  sick  and  wounded  in  the 
theatre  of  operations  is  carefuly  worked  out  and  published 
in  the  new  Field  Service  Regulations,  and  will  be  a  matter 
for  careful  study  in  preparation  for  actual  service. 

12.  In  the  absence  of  medical  assistance,  the  wounded 
apply  their  first  aid  packets  if  practicable,  and  you  may 
assist  a  wounded  comrade  in  this.  With  this  exception  the 
care  of  the  wounded  devolves  upon  the  sanitary  troops, 
and  no  combatant,  unless  duly  authorized,  is  permitted  to 
take  or  accompany  the  sick  or  injured  to  the  rear.  The 
man  who  leaves  the  line  to  carry  back  a  wounded  comrade 
is  now  looked  upon  as  a  skulker.  Your  active  interest  in 
him  must  cease  as  soon  as  you  have  taken  from  him  all  his 
ammunition  for  distribution  along  the  firing  line. 

13.  Before  entering  upon  any  active  campaign, 
everyone,  officers  and  men,  must  be  familiar  with  the  per- 
tinent articles  of  international  convention  relating  to  the 
treatment  of  the  enemy's  sick  and  wounded,  members  of 
the  medical  corps,  etc.     See  appendix  6,  F.  S.  R. 

14.  With  the  surgeon  and  your  company  com- 
mander both  regarding  your  welfare,  it  is  still  up  to  the 
man  himself,  if  he  wishes  to  keep  physically  fit,  and  to 
come  out  of  the  campaign  free  from  disease  and  the  seeds 
of  early  breakdown.  The  following  paragraphs  from  the 
Manual  for  Infantry  published  by  the  Division  of  Militia 
Affairs,  are  given  for  the  information  of  all,  and  the 
observance  of  those  who  think  enough  of  themselves  and 
their  one  life  on  earth  to  take  a  few  reasonable  precautions 
to  keep  their  bodies  free  from  disease. 

Care  of  Health. — History  shows  that  in  most  past 
wars  many  more  men  have  died  from  disease  than  from 
wounds  received  in  battle,  and  that  many  a  campaign  has 
been  brought  to  naught  because  sickness  had  incapacitated 


CARE  OF  HEALTH  379 

the  men  to  complete  it.  Much  of  this  disease  is  prevent- 
able, and  is  due  either  to  the  ignorance  or  carelessness 
of  the  person  who  has  the  disease,  or  of  other  persons 
about  him.  It  is  a  terrible  truth  that  one  man  who  vio- 
lates any  of  the  great  rules  of  health  may  be  the  means 
of  killing  many  more  of  his  comrades  than  are  killed  by 
the  bullets  of  the  enemy. 

Here  is  a  subject  for  the  direct  personal  attention  of 
every  man  in  the  service.  It  is  as  much  your  military 
duty  to  be  well  and  strong,  as  to  be  skilled  in  use  of  your 
arms.  A  sick  man  is  of  no  more  value  in  campaign  and 
battle  than  a  wounded  man,  or  a  prisoner,  and  he  is  much 
more  a  nuisance.  Negligently  or  ignorantly  to  allow 
yourself  or  your  men  to  become  sick,  is  as  disastrous  to 
battle  efficiency,  as  to  allow  them  needlessly  to  be  killed 
and  wounded,  or  taken  prisoners.  When  men  and  leaders 
realize  this,  they  will  more  cheerfully  and  conscientiously 
give  heed  to  the  rules  of  health. 

It  is  therefore  important  that  every  soldier  be  im- 
pressed with  the  necessity  of  keeping  healthy,  and  not  only 
that  leaders  be  trained  to  guard  the  health  of  their  men, 
but  that  every  man  be  taught  how  to  care  for  his  own 
health,  which  will  include  seeing  to  it  that  his  comrades 
also  observe  the  prescribed  rules  for  this  purpose. 

15.  Catching  or  contagious  diseases  are  the  ones 
mostly  to  be  feared  among  troops.  All  of  them  are  due 
to  germs,  which  are  either  little  animals  or  little  plants  so 
very  small  that  they  can  only  be  seen  by  the  aid  of  the 
microscope.  1,000,000,000  dead  typhoid  germs  are  given 
in  the  15  drops  of  the  second  and  third  doses  of  typhoid 
vaccine.  All  diseases  caused  by  germs  are  "  catching." 
All  other  diseases  are  "  not  catching." 

There  are  only  five  ways  of  catching  disease: 

(a)  Getting  certain  germs  on  the  body,  or  touching 
some  one  or  something  which  has  them  on  it.  Thus,  one 
may  catch  venereal  diseases,  smallpox,  measles,  scarlet 
fever,  chicken  pox,  mumps,  boils,  lice  (body),  ringworm, 


380  SANITATION 

barbers'  itch,  dhobie  itch,  and  some  other  diseases.  Wounds 
are  infected  in  this  manner. 

(b)  Breathing  in  certain  germs  which  float  in  the  air. 
In  this  way  one  may  catch  pneumonia,  consumption,  in- 
fluenza, diphtheria,  whooping  cough,  tonsilitis,  spinal 
meningitis,  measles,  and  certain  other  diseases. 

(c)  Taking  certain  germs  in  through  the  mouth,  in 
eating  or  drinking.  Dysentery,  cholera,  typhoid  fever, 
diarrhoea,  and  intestinal  worms,  may  be  caught  in  this 
manner. 

(d)  Having  certain  germs  injected  into  the  body  by 
bites  of  insects,  such  as  mosquitoes,  fleas,  and  bedbugs. 
Malaria,  yellow  fever,  dengue  fever,  and  bubonic  plague 
may  be  caught  in  this  way. 

(e)  Inheriting  the  germ  from  one's  parents. 

i6.  Persons  may  have  these  germs  sometimes  with- 
out apparently  being  sick  with  any  disease.  Such  persons 
and  those  who  are  sick  with  the  diseases,  are  a  great  source 
of  danger  to  others  about  them.  Germs  which  multiply 
in  such  persons  are  found  in  their  urine  and  excretions 
from  the  bowels ;  in  discharges  from  ulcers  and  abscesses ; 
in  the  spit  or  particles  coughed  or  sneezed  into  the  air ;  in 
the  perspiration  or  scales  from  the  skin  ;  and  in  the  blood 
sucked  up  by  biting  insects. 

17.  Those  who  have  taken  care  of  their  health,  and 
who  have  not  become  weakened  by  bad  habits,  exposure, 
and  fatigue,  are  not  only  less  liable  to  catch  disease,  but  are 
more  apt  to  recover  when  taken  sick. 

18.  Knowing  all  these  things,  the  soldier  can  under- 
stand the  reasons  for  the  following  rules  and  how  'im- 
portant it  is  that  they  be  carried  out  by  each  person. 

19.  Stay  away  from  persons  having  "catching" 
diseases. 

20.  If  you  have  any  disease,  do  not  try  to  cure  it 
yourself,  but  go  to  the  surgeon.  Insist  that  your  comrades 
do  likewise. 

21.  Association  with  lewd  women  is  dangerous.    It 


RULES  FOR  HEALTH  381 

may  result  in  disabling  you  for  life.  It  is  the  cause  of  a 
disease  (syphilis)  which  may  be  transmitted  by  a  parent 
to  his  children.  Soldiers  with  venereal  diseases  should 
not  use  basins  or  toilet  articles  used  by  others,  as  the 
germs  of  these  diseases,  if  gotten  into  the  eye,  may  cause 
blindness.  Likewise,  if  they  use  the  same  drinking  cup 
used  by  others,  they  may  give  others  the  disease.  They 
should  promptly  report  their  trouble  to  the  surgeon,  that 
they  may  receive  the  best  medical  advice  and  attention. 
This  may  be  done  privately  at  other  times  than  sick  call. 

22.  Cooked  germs  are  dead  and  therefore  harmless. 
Water,  even  when  clear,  may  be  alive  with  deadly  germs. 
Therefore,  when  the  conditions  are  such  that  the  com- 
manding officer  orders  all  drinking  water  to  be  boiled,  be 
careful  to  live  up  to  this  order. 

23.  Use  the  latrines  and  do  not  go  elsewhere  to 
relieve  yourself.  In  open  latrines,  cover  your  deposit 
with  dirt,  as  it  breeds  flies,  and  may  also  be  full  of  germs. 

24.  Flies  carry  germs  from  one  place  to  another. 
Therefore,  see  that  your  food  and  mess  kit  are  protected 
from  them. 

25.  All  slops  and  scraps  of  food  scattered  about 
camp  soon  produce  bad  odors  and  draw  flies.  Therefore, 
do  your  part  toward  keeping  the  camp  free  from  disease 
by  carefully  depositing  such  refuse  in  the  pits  or  cans  used 
for  this  purpose. 

26.  Urinate  only  in  the  latrines,  or  in  arrangements 
provided  for  this  purpose,  never  on  the  ground  around 
camp,  because  it  not  only  causes  bad  smells,  but  urine 
sometimes  contains  germs  of  "  catching  "  diseases. 

27.  Soapy  water  thrown  on  the  ground  soon  pro- 
duces bad  odors.  Therefore,  in  camps  of  several  days' 
duration,  this  water  should  be  thrown  in  covered  pits,  or 
in  cans  used  for  this  purpose. 

28.  As  certain  mosquitoes  can  trasmit  malaria  and 
yellow  fever,  use  your  mosquito  bar  for  this  reason,  as 
well  as  for  personal  comfort. 


382  SANITATION 

29.  Keep  your  mouth  clean  by  brushing  your  teeth 
once  or  twice  a  day.  It  helps  to  prevent  the  teeth  from 
decaying.  Decayed  teeth  cause  toothache.  They  also 
lead  to  swallowing  food  without  properly  chewing  it,  and 
this  leads  to  stomach  trouble  of  various  kinds.  Food  left 
around  and  between  the  teeth,  is  bad  for  the  teeth,  and 
forms  good  breeding  places  for  germs. 

30.  Keep  the  skin  clean.  Through  the  pores  of  the 
skin  the  body  gets  rid  of  much  waste  and  poisonous  mat- 
ter. Therefore,  remove  this,  and  keep  the  pores  open  by 
bathing  once  every  day,  if  possible.  If  water  is  scarce, 
rub  the  body  over  with  a  wet  towel.  If  no  water  is  at 
hand,  take  a  dry  rub.  Wash  carefully  the  arm  pits,  be- 
tween the  legs,  and  under  the  foreskin,  as  this  will  prevent 
chafing. 

31.  The  skin  prevents  the  sensitive  parts  underneath 
from  injury  and  helps  to  keep  out  germs.  Therefore, 
when  blisters  are  formed  do  not  tear  off  the  skin.  Insert 
a  needle  under  the  skin  a  little  distance  back  from  the 
blister,  and  push  it  through  to  the  opposite  side.  Press 
out  the  liquid  through  the  holes  thus  formed.  Heat  the 
needle  red  hot  first,  with  a  match  or  candle,  to  kill  the 
germs. 

32.  When  the  skin  is  broken  (in  cuts  and  wounds), 
keep  the  opening  covered  with  a  bandage  to  keep  out 
germs  and  dirt ;  otherwise  the  sore  may  fester.  Puss  is 
always  caused  by  germs. 

33.  Take  care  of  your  feet.  A  soldier  cannot  march 
with  sore  feet,  and  marching  is  the  main  part  of  a  soldier's 
duty.  Even  the  cavalrymen  must  be  able  to  work  on  foot. 
The  exigencies  of  service  may  require  it  at  any  time.  The 
Germans  treat  sore  feet  as  a  military  offense,  as  it  is  gen- 
erally due  to  carelessness  or  neglect  on  the  part  of  the 
soldier.  Wash  and  dry  the  feet  carefully  at  the  end  of 
every  day's  march.  This  removes  the  dirt  and  perspira- 
tion and  makes  the  skin  healthy.  It  soothes  tired  feet  and 
greatly  lessens  the  chances  of  sores  and  chafing.  Do  not 
wander  about  camp  through  the  grass  barefooted,  as  the 


I 


RULES  FOR  HEALTH  383 

skin  may  be  scratched  or  the  feet  bruised,  or  poisonous 
weeds  may  be  encountered.  If  the  skin  is  tender  or  the 
feet  perspire  freely,  wash  with  warm  salt  water  or  alum 
water.  For  raw  or  chafed  spots  use  foot  powder,  which 
can  be  obtained  at  the  hospital.  Grease  or  soap,  or  foot 
powder  applied  to  the  foot  or  the  stocking  before  starting 
on  the  march,  prevents  rubbing.  Cut  the  toe-nails  square 
(fairly  close  in  the  middle,  but  leaving  the  sides  somewhat 
longer),  as  this  prevents  ingrowing  nails.  If  corns  or 
bunions  or  ingrowing  nails  give  trouble,  or  any  rawness 
or  rubbing  causes  pain,  go  to  the  surgeon  promptly  for 
advice.  Do  not  wait  several  days  till  you  can  no  longer 
march.  Do  not  wear  stockings  full  of  holes  if  you  can 
possibly  get  others.  Wear  a  clean  pair  every  day,  wash- 
ing them  at  night  if  necessary.  The  light  woolen  stock- 
ings issued  by  the  Government  are  probably  the  best  to 
use  even  in  the  summer.  Should  a  hole  or  seam  in  the 
stocking  begin  to  cause  rubbing,  turn  it  inside  out  or 
change  it  to  the  other  foot.  Be  careful  in  drawing  shoes 
to  get  a  good  fit.  Do  not  be  so  foolish  or  green  as  to 
start  out  to  march  wearing  new  shoes  or  the  light  shoes 
ordinarily  used  by  civilians,  or  low  shoes,  or  patent-leather 
shoes.  Keep  the  marching  shoes  well  oiled  to  keep  them 
soft  and  pliable.  If  they  get  full  of  sand  on  the  march 
wash  out  the  inside  on  reaching  camp  and  then  hang  on  a 
couple  of  pegs  overnight  to  drain.  They  may  feel  cool  and 
iclammy  in  the  morning,  but  they  will  be  clean  and  soft. 
Never  place  the  shoes  near  a  fire,  or  in  the  sun,  to  dry  as 
it  makes  them  hard  and  stiff. 

34.  Keep  your  hair  short.  Long  hair  and  a  long 
beard  in  the  field  generally  means  a  dirty  head  and  a  dirty 
face,  and  favors  skin  diseases,  lice,  and  dandruff. 

Do  not  let  others  spit  on  the  floor  of  your  tent  or 
quarters. 

Be  careful  of  any  discharges  from  the  horse,  nostrils, 
eyes,  etc.  Always  wash  carefully  after  grooming,  and 
before  eating. 

35.  Do  not  let  any  part  of  the  body  become  chilled, 


884  SANITATION 

as  this  very  often  is  the  direct  cause  of  diarrhoea,  dysen- 
tery, pneumonia,  rheumatism,  and  other  diseases. 

36.  Wet  clothes  may  be  worn  while  marching  or 
exercising  without  bad  results,  but  there  is  great  danger 
if  one  rests  in  wet  clothing,  as  the  body  may  become 
chilled. 

37.  Do  not  sit  or  lie  or  sleep  directly  on  damp 
ground,  as  this  is  sure  to  chill  the  body. 

38.  When  hot  or  perspiring  or  when  wearing  damp 
clothes,  do  not  remain  where  a  breeze  can  strike  you.  You 
are  sure  to  become  chilled. 

39.  Every  day,  if  possible,  hang  your  blanket  and 
clothing  out  to  air  in  the  sun ;  shake  or  beat  them  with  a 
small  stick.  Germs  and  vermin  do  not  like  this  treat- 
ment, but  damp,  musty  clothing  suits  them  very  well. 
Wash  your  shirts,  underwear  and  socks  frequently.  The 
danger  of  blood  poisoning  from  a  wound  is  greatly  in- 
creased if  the  bullet  first  passes  through  dirty  clothes. 

40.  Always  prepare  your  bed  before  dark.  Level  off 
the  ground  and  scrape  out  a  little  hollow  for  your  hips. 
Get  some  straw  or  dry  grass,  if  possible.  Green  grass  or 
branches  from  trees  are  better  than  nothing.  Sleep  on 
your  poncho.  This  keeps  the  dampness  from  coming  up 
from  the  ground  and  chilling  the  body.  Every  minute 
spent  in  making  a  good  bed  means  about  an  hour's  good 
rest  later  on. 

41.  Avoid  the  food  and  drink  found  for  sale  in  the 
cheap  stands  about  camp.  The  quality  is  generally  bad, 
and  it  is  often  prepared  in  filthy  places  by  very  dirty 
persons. 

Do  not  drink  water  from  any  source  until  it  has  been 
declared  safe  by  the  company  commander.  If  there  is  any 
doubt,  boil  it  twenty  minutes  first.  Keep  everything  out 
of  your  mouth  that  may  be  unclean,  straws,  toothpicks,  etc. 

4a.  The  use  of  intoxicating  liquor  is  particularly 
dangerous  in  the  field.  Its  excessive  use,  even  at  long 
intervals,  breaks  down  one's  system.  Drinking  men  are 
more  apt  to  get  sick,  and  less  liable  to  get  well,  than  are 


FIRST  AID  RULES  385 

their  more  abstemious  comrades.  If  alcohol  is  taken  at 
all,  it  is  best  after  the  work  of  the  day  is  over.  It  should 
never  be  taken  when  the  body  is  exposed  to  severe  cold, 
as  it  diminishes  the  resistance  of  the  body.  Hot  tea  or 
coffee  is  much  preferable  under  these  circumstances. 

43.  A  Few  First-Aid  Rules. — ^The  bandages  and 
dressings  contained  in  the  first-aid  packet  have  been  so 
treated  as  to  destroy  any  germs  thereon.  Therefore,  when 
dressing  a  wound,  be  careful  not  to  touch  or  handle,  or 
expose  unnecessarily,  that  part  of  the  dressing  which  is  to 
be  applied  to  the  wound. 

44.  A  sick  or  injured  person  should  always  be  made 
to  lie  down  on  his  back,  if  practicable,  as  this  is  the  most 
comfortable  position,  and  all  muscles  may  be  relaxed. 

45.  All  tight  articles  of  clothing  and  equipment 
should  be  loosened  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  breathing 
or  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Belts,  collars,  and  the 
trousers  at  the  waist,  should  be  opened. 

46.  Do  not  let  mere  onlookers  crowd  about  the  pa- 
tient. They  prevent  him  from  getting  fresh  air,  and  also 
make  him  nervous  and  excited. 

47.  In  case  of  injury,  the  heart  action  is  generally 
weak  from  shock,  and  the  body,  therefore,  grows  some- 
what cold.  So  do  not  remove  any  more  clothing  than  is 
necessary  to  expose  the  injury. 

48.  Cut  or  rip  the  clothing,  but  do  not  pull  it.  Try 
to  disturb  the  patient  as  little  as  possible. 

49.  Do  not  touch  a  wound  with  your  fingers,  or  a 
handkerchief,  or  with  anything  else  but  the  first-aid  dress- 
ing. Do  not  wash  the  wound  with  water.  Otherwise  you 
may  infect  the  wound. 

50.  Do  not  administer  stimulants  (whisky,  brandy, 
wine,  etc.)  unless  ordered  to  do  so  by  a  doctor.  While 
in  a  few  cases  stimulants  are  of  benefit,  in  a  great  many 
cases  they  do  positive  harm,  especially  where  there  has 
been  any  bleeding. 

51.  The  heart  may  be  considered  as  a  pump,  and  the 
arteries  as  a  rubber  hose,  which  carry  the  blood  from  the 

25 


386  SANITATION 

heart  to  every  part  of  the  body.  The  veins  are  the  hose 
which  carry  the  blood  back  to  the  heart.  Every  wound 
bleeds  some,  but,  unless  a  large  artery  or  a  large  vein  is 
cut,  the  bleeding  will  stop  after  a  short  while  if  the  patient 
is  kept  quiet,  and  the  first-aid  dressing  is  bound  over 
the  wound,  so  as  to  make  pressure  on  it. 

52.  When  a  large  artery  is  cut  the  blood  gushes  out 
in  spurts  every  time  the  heart  beats.  In  this  case  it  is 
necessary  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  by  pressing  upon  the 
hose  somewhere  between  the  heart  and  the  leak. 

53.  If  a  vein  be  cut  the  blood  is  darker  colored  and 
flows  steadily,  and  the  flow  will  be  stopped  by  pressing 
between  the  cut  and  the  extremity,  that  is  somewhere  be- 
yond the  leak  away  from  the  heart. 

54.  This  pressure  may  be  applied  temporarily  by 
the  thumbs  pressing  through  the  flesh  down  against  the 
bone,  and  thus  closing  the  artery  or  vein. 

55.  Another  way,  and  more  permanent,  is  to  apply 
pressure  by  means  of  a  tourniquet.  Place  a  pad  of  tightly 
rolled  cloth  or  paper,  or  any  suitable  object,  over  the  artery. 
Tie  a  bandage  loosely  about  the  limb  over  this  pad,  and 
then  insert  your  bayonet  or  a  stick,  and  twist  up  the  ban- 
dage until  the  pressure  of  the  pad  on  the  artery  stops  the 
leak.  Twist  the  bandage  slowly  and  stop  as  soon  as  the 
blood  ceases  to  flow,  in  order  not  to  bruise  the  flesh  or 
muscles  unnecessarily. 

56.  A  tourniquet  may  cause  pain  and  swelling  of  the 
limb,  and  if  left  on  too  long  may  cause  the  limb  to  die. 
Therefore,  about  every  half  hour  or  so  loosen  the  bandage 
very  carefully,  but  if  the  bleeding  continues,  pressure  must 
be  applied  again.  In  this  case  apply  the  pressure  with  the 
thumb  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  as  this  cuts  off  only  the 
main  artery  and  leaves  some  of  the  smaller  arteries  and 
the  veins  free  to  restore  part  of  the  circulation.  When  a 
tourniquet  is  painful,  it  is  too  tight,  and  should  be  care- 
fully loosened  a  little. 

57.  A  broken  bone  is  called  a  fracture.  The  great 
danger  in  the  case  of  a  fracture  is  that  the  sharp,  jagged 


FIRST  AID  RULES  387 

edges  of  the  bones  may  stick  through  the  flesh  and  skin, 
or  tear  and  bruise  the  arteries,  veins,  and  muscles.  If  the 
skin  is  not  broken,  a  fracture  is  not  serious,  as  no  germs 
can  get  in.  Therefore,  never  move  a  person  with  a  broken 
bone  until  the  fracture  has  been  so  fixed  that  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bone  cannot  move. 

58.  If  the  leg  or  arm  is  broken,  straighten  the  limb 
gently,  and  if  necessary,  pull  upon  the  end  firmly  to  get  the 
bones  in  place.  Then  bind  the  limb  firmly  to  a  splint  to 
hold  it  in  place.  A  splint  may  be  made  of  any  straight, 
stiff  material — a  shingle  or  piece  of  board,  a  bayonet,  a 
rifle,  a  straight  branch  of  a  tree,  etc.  Whatever  material 
you  use  must  be  well  padded  on  the  side  next  to  the  limb. 
Be  careful  never  to  place  the  bandages  over  the  fracture, 
but  always  above  and  below. 

59.  Many  surgeons  think  that  the  method  of  binding 
a  broken  leg  to  the  well  one,  and  of  binding  the  arm  to 
the  body  is  the  best  plan  in  the  field,  as  being  the  quickest, 
and  one  that  serves  the  immediate  purpose. 

60.  With  wounds  about  body,  chest  and  abdomen  you 
must  not  meddle,  except  to  protect  them  when  possible 
without  much  handling,  with  materials  of  the  packet. 

61.  The  symptoms  of  fainting,  shock,  and  heat  exhaus^ 
tion  are  very  similar.  The  face  is  pale,  the  skin  cool  and 
moist,  the  pulse  is  weak,  and  generally  the  patient  is  un- 
conscious. Keep  the  patient  quiet,  resting  on  his  back, 
with  his  head  low.  Loosen  the  clothing,  but  keep  the 
patient  warm,  and  give  stimulants  (whisky,  hot  coffee, 
tea,  etc.). 

62.  In  the  case  of  sunstroke  the  face  is  flushed,  the 
skin  is  dry  and  very  hot,  and  the  pulse  is  full  and  strong. 
In  this  case  place  the  patient  in  a  cool  spot,  remove  the 
clothing,  and  make  every  effort  to  lessen  the  heat  in  the 
body  by  cold  applications  to  the  head  and  surface  gen- 
erally. Do  not,  under  any  circumstances,  give  any  stim- 
ulants or  hot  drinks.  , 

63.  In  case  of  freezing  and  frostbite  the  part  frozen, 


888  SANITATION 

which  looks  white  or  bluish  white,  and  is  cold,  should  be 
very  slowly  raised  in  temperature  by  brisk  but  careful  rub- 
bing in  a  cool  place  and  never  near  a  fire.  Stimulants  are 
to  be  given  cautiously  when  the  patient  can  swallow,  and 
followed  by  small  amounts  of  warm  liquid  nourishment. 
The  object  is  to  restore  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and 
the  natural  warmth,  gradually  and  not  violently.  Care 
and  patience  are  necessary  to  do  this. 

64.  Being  under  water  for  four  or  five  minutes  is 
generally  fatal,  but  an  effort  to  revive  the  apparently 
drowned  should  always  be  made,  unless  it  is  known  that 
the  body  has  been  under  water  for  a  very  long  time.  The 
attempt  to  revive  the  patient  should  not  be  delayed  for  the 
purpose  of  removing  his  clothes  or  placing  him  in  the 
ambulance.  Begin  the  procedure  as  soon  as  he  is  out  of 
the  water,  on  the  shore,  or  in  the  boat.  The  first  and  most 
important  thing  is  to  start  artificial  respiration  without 
delay. 

The  Schaefer  method  is  preferred  because  it  can  be 
carried  out  by  one  person  without  assistance,  and  because 
its  procedure  is  not  exhausting  to  the  operator,  thus  per- 
mitting him,  if  required,  to  continue  it  for  one  or  two 
hours.  Where  it  is  known  that  a  person  has  been  under 
water  for  but  a  few  minutes,  continue  the  artificial  respira- 
tion for  at  least  one  and  a  half  to  two  hours  before  con- 
sidering the  case  hopeless.  Once  the  patient  has  begun  to 
breathe,  watch  carefully  to  see  that  he  does  not  stop  again. 
Should  the  breathing  be  very  faint,  or  should  he  stop 
breathing,  assist  him  again  with  artificial  respiration.  After 
he  starts  breathing,  do  not  lift  him,  nor  permit  him  to 
stand,  until  the  breathing  has  become  full  and  regular. 

As  soon  as  the  patient  is  removed  from  the  water,  turn 
him  face  to  the  ground,  clasp  your  hands  under  his  waist, 
and  raise  the  body  so  that  any  water  may  drain  out  of  the 
air  passages  while  the  head  remains  low. 

Schaefer  Method. — The  patient  is  laid  on  his 
stomach,  arms  extended  from  his  body  beyond  his  head, 
face  turned  to  one  side  so  that  the  mouth  and  nose  do  not 
touch  the  ground.     This  position  causes  the  tongue  to  fall 


SCHAEFER  METHOD  389 

forward  of  its  own  weight  and  so  prevents  its  falling  back 
into  the  air  passages.  Turning  the  head  to  one  side  pre- 
vents the  face  coming  into  contact  with  mud  or  water  dur- 
ing the  operation.  This  position  also  facilitates  the  re- 
moval from  the  mouth  of  foreign  bodies  such  as  tobacco, 
chewing  gum,  false  teeth,  etc.,  and  favors  the  expulsion 
of  mucus,  blood,  vomitus,  serum,  or  any  liquid  that  may 
be  in  the  air  passages. 

The  operator  kneels,  straddling  one  or  both  of  the 
patient's  thighs,  and  faces  his  head.  Locating  the  lowest  rib, 
the  operator,  with  his  thumbs  nearly  parallel  to  his  fingers 
places  his  hands  so  that  the  little  finger  curls  over  the 
twelfth  rib.  If  the  hands  are  on  the  pelvic  bones,  the  object 
of  the  work  is  defeated ;  hence  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  are 
first  located  in  order  to  avoid  them.  The  hands  must  be 
free  from  the  pelvis  and  resting  on  the  lowest  rib.  By 
operating  on  the  bare  back  it  is  easier  to  locate  the  lower 
ribs  and  avoid  the  pelvis.  The  nearer  the  ends  of  the  ribs 
the  hands  are  placed  without  sliding  off  the  better.  The 
hands  are  thus  removed  from  the  spine,  the  fingers  being 
nearly  out  of  sight. 

The  fingers  help  some,  but  the  chief  pressure  is  exerted 
by  the  heels  (thenar  and  hypothenar  eminences)  of  the 
hands,  with  the  weight  coming  straight  from  the  shoulders. 
It  is  a  waste  of  energy  to  bend  the  arms  at  the  elbows 
and  shove  in  from  the  sides,  because  the  muscles  of  the 
back  are  stronger  than  the  muscles  of  the  arms. 

The  operator's  arms  are  held  straight,  and  his  weight 
is  brought  from  his  shoulders  by  bringing  his  body  and 
shoulders  forward.  This  weight  is  gradually  increased 
until  at  the  end  of  the  three  seconds  of  vertical  pressure 
upon  the  lower  ribs  of  the  patient  the  force  if  felt  to  be 
heavy  enough  to  compress  the  parts ;  then  the  weight  is 
suddenly  removed;  if  there  is  danger  of  not  returning 
the  hands  to  the  right  position  again  they  can  remain 
lightly  in  place,  but  it  is  usually  better  to  remove  the 
hands  entirely.  If  the  operator  is  light,  and  the  patient 
is  heavy,  the  operator  can  utilize  over  80  per  cent,  of  his 
weight  by  raising  his  knees  from  the  ground,  and  support- 


390  SANITATION 

ing  himself  entirely  on  his  toes  and  the  heels  of  his  hands 
— 'the  latter  properly  placed  on  the  ends  of  the  floating 
ribs  of  the  patient.  In  this  manner  he  can  work  as  effec- 
tively as  a  heavy  man. 

A  light  feather  or  a  piece  of  absorbent  cotton  drawn 
out  thin  and  held  near  the  nose  by  some  one  will  indi- 
cate by  its  movements  whether  or  not  there  is  a  current  of 
air  going  and  coming  with  each  forced  expiration  and 
spontaneous  inspiration. 

The  rate  of  operation  is  12  to  15  times  per  minute,  and 
should  not  exceed  this ;  the  lungs  must  be  thoroughly 
emptied  by  three  seconds  of  pressure,  then  refilling  takes 
care  of  itself.  Pressure  and  release  of  pressure — one 
complete  respiration — occupies  about  five  seconds.  If  the 
operator  is  alone  he  can  be  guided  in  each  act  by  his  own 
deep,  regular  respiration,  or  by  counting,  or  by  his  watch 
lying  by  his  side;  if  comrades  are  present,  he  can  be 
advised  by  them. 

The  duration  of  the  efforts  at  artificial  respiration 
should  ordinarily  exceed  an  hour;  indefinitely  longer  if 
there  are  any  evidences  of  returning  animation,  by  way  of 
breathing,  speaking,  or  movements.  There  are  liable  to 
be  evidences  of  life  within  25  minutes  in  patients  who  will 
recover  from  electric  shock,  but  where  there  is  doubt  the 
patient  should  have  the  benefit  of  the  doubt.  In  drowning, 
especially,  recoveries  are  on  record  after  two  hours  or 
more  of  unconsciousness;  hence,  the  Schaefer  method, 
being  easy  of  operation,  is  more  likely  to  be  persisted  in. 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  may  be  poured  on  a 
handkerchief  and  held  continuously  within  3  inches  of  the 
face  and  nose;  if  other  ammonia  preparations  are  used, 
they  should  be  diluted  or  held  farther  away.  Try  it  on 
your  own  nose  first. 

When  the  operator  is  a  heavy  man,  it  is  necessary  to 
caution  him  not  to  bring  force  too  violently  upon  the  ribs, 
as  one  of  them  might  be  broken. 

Do  not  attempt  to  give  liquids  of  any  kind  to  the  patient 
while  unconscious.  Apply  warm  blankets  and  hot-water 
bottles  as  soon  as  they  can  be  obtained. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

HORSEMANSHIP 

Not  only  as  the  very  coinerstone  of  cavalry  training, 
but  necessary  to  the  mounted  men  in  all  arms,  and  of 
interest  to  many  who  love  horses,  this  chapter  is  added. 

1.  A  cavalryman  means  a  trooper  and  his  horse  to- 
gether. The  failure  of  either  breaks  the  combination,  so 
both  are  important,  and  their  w^  el  fare  must  be  the  especial 
and  constant  care  of  their  leader.  But  even  then  the  suc- 
cess and  efficiency  of  the  combination  depends  on  their 
mutual  training,  their  ability  to  work  together  harmoni- 
ously in  carrying  out  the  will  of  the  leader.  The  training 
of  the  horse  and  keeping  him  fit  and  efficient  are  necessarily 
matters  that  rest  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  individual 
rider  himself.  And  if  he  have  the  heart  of  a  cavalryman 
it  will  be  his  greatest  pleasure  to  care  for  his  horse  and  to 
develop  his  powers,  courage  and  cleverness  by  faithful  and 
intelligent  handling. 

2.  For  the  American  service,  which  contemplates 
the  hasty  training  of  recruits  and  volunteers  on  the  out- 
break of  war,  a  system  of  horsemanship  is  required  that 
may  be  learned  by  both  horse  and  man  in  a  reasonable 
time.  Such  a  system  is  set  forth  in  our  Cavalry  Drill 
Regulations,  which  teach  enough  to  make  good  cavalry- 
men. It  is  the  product  of  long  practical  experience  in  train- 
ing the  most  efficient  cavalry  in  the  world.  If  one  has  time 
and  interest  to  go  beyond  this  practical  horsemanship,  it  is 
a  rnost  agreeable  pastime,  and  worthy  any  gentleman's 
leisure.  It  should  appeal  particularly  to  the  citizen  soldier, 
for  a  ride  on  a  well  trained  horse  of  high  spirit  will  refresh 
the  most  jaded  nerves,  the  vitality  and  spirit  of  the  horse 
giving  them  renewed  vigor  and  exhilaration. 

3.  The  first  thought  in  dealing  with  horses  is  to 
realize  that  the  rider's  disposition  or  temi>er  is  usually 

391 


392  HORSEMANSHIP 

communicated  to  and  reacts  upon  the  horse,  and  it  is 
therefore  to  their  mutual  interest  to  preserve  calmness. 
For  example,  let  a  man  find  himself  mounted  on  a  rough 
trotting  horse  on  the  march,  if  he  loses  his  temper,  and 
yanks  and  spurs  the  horse,  instead  of  improving  condi- 
tions he  will  be  well  punished  by  the  added  roughness  and 
nervous  irregularity  of  the  horse's  gait.  And  how  often 
we  see  a  nervous  horse  grow  calm  under  the  quiet  control 
of  a  sympathetic  hand;  and  a  perfectly  trained  animal 
become  fairly  wild  under  the  constant  irritation  of  a  rider 
who  has  no  sympathy  or  understanding  in  controlling  him. 

4.  In  the  first  lessons  care  should  be  taken  to  develop 
the  confidence  of  the  beginner  by  progress  suited  to 
his  capacity  and  experience,  which  will  exempt  him 
from  falls  or  other  accidents.  Some  instructors  seem  to 
think  it  clever  to  subject  the  beginner  to  humiliation  and 
possible  accidents  by  requiring  him  to  ride  difficult  horses 
at  first.  Many  believe  the  rider  gains  fearlessness  only 
when  he  finds  that  he  can  be  thrown  without  being  hurt. 
This  may  be  true  of  a  certain  type  of  men.  But  it  is  gen- 
erally most  important  that  the  beginner  first  acquire  con- 
fidence in  himself  and  in  his  ability  to  control  this  unaccus- 
tomed and  really  powerful  animal  that  he  finds  beneath 
him.  His  first  lessons  should  be  given  not  only  on  quiet 
horses,  but  in  the  saddle  rather  than  bare  back.  Having 
gained  confidence  and  something  of  balance  and  control 
he  can  later  perfect  his  seat  by  riding  bare  back  or  without 
stirrups. 

5.  The  instructor  must  give  individual  instruction,  for 
as  a  rule  generalities  will  not  apply.  He  can  best  do  this 
by  riding  beside  first  one  recruit  and  then  another,  cor- 
recting their  mistakes  in  a  quiet  conversational  tone  of 
voice.  And  during  all  this  instruction  the  men  must  be 
riding  at  ease;  for  if  they  be  required  to  ride  at  attention 
you  will  find  that  this  introduces  a  rigidity  and  stiffness 
that  are  entirely  incompatible  with  the  relaxed  muscles 
and  freedom  of  movement  necessary  to  acquire  a  good 
seat.     They  should  not  even  be  required  to  maintain  any 


PRELIMINARY  RULES  393 

given  distance  between  troopers  during  the  first  lessons, 
when  all  their  attention  is  needed  for  acquiring  proper  seat 
and  hands.  Enough  that  they  all  move  in  the  same  direc- 
tion at  slow  gaits  around  the  track.  If  conditions  war- 
rant, it  may  be  well  even  to  introduce  the  element  of  having 
fun.  The  recruit  should  certainly  learr  to  enjoy  riding, 
and  if  enjoying  himself,  will  unconsciously  loosen  up  and 
find  himself  riding  with  a  secure  seat  before  he  knows  it. 
A  relaxed  supple  body  is  essential  to  a  good  seat. 

6.  After  the  trooper  has  gained  confidence  and  some 
ability  it  is  well  to  have  him  ride  different  horses,  even 
at  the  same  drill,  as  each  horse  has  its  own  peculiarities  as 
to  gait  and  control,  and  the  trooper  needs  a  wide  experi- 
ence to  make  him  a  good  horseman.  With  the  limited 
time  available,  he  must  not  expect  to  accomplish  this  in 
ranks  only.  He  must  ride  whenever  he  can,  being  his 
own  instructor  after  he  has  learned  the  principles  in  the 
squad  work.  In  acquiring  a  good  seat,  each  man  has  to 
solve  his  own  problem. 

The  best  gait  for  acquiring  the  cavalry  seat  is  riding 
straight  ahead  at  a  trot,  and  this  exercise  may  often  be 
taken  to  great  advantage  out  of  doors  on  country  roads, 
the  instructor  riding  alongside  the  column  keeping  in 
touch  with  the  work  of  the  individuals. 

7.  The  following  rules  must  be  so  thoroughly  known 
as  to  become  second  nature  to  the  horseman,  and  so 
genuinely  accepted  that  even  when  alone  and  unobserved 
it  would  never  occur  to  him  to  violate  one  of  them.  Prac- 
tically all  the  disabilities  of  horses  in  service  arise  from 
the  violation  of  some  one  of  these  rules. 

1.  Never  threaten,  strike  or  otherwise  abuse  a  horse, 
particularly  about  the  head,  which  will  make  bridling  and 
handling  much  more  difficult, 

2.  Before  entering  his  stall,  always  speak  to  the  horse 
gently,  and  then  go  in  quietly,  preferably  on  his  near  side. 

3.  Never  take  a  rapid  gait,  until  the  horse  has  been 
warmed  up  by  gentle  exercise. 

4.  Never  put  up  a  horse  brought  in  a  heated  condi- 


394  HORSEMANSHIP 

tion  to  the  stable  or  picket  line,  but  throw  a  blanket  over 
him,  and  rub  his  legs  or  walk  him  until  cool.  When  he  is 
wet,  put  him  under  shelter,  and  wisp  him  until  dry. 

5.  Never  feed  grain  to  a  horse  when  he  is  heated,  or 
very  tired  and  hungry.  In  the  latter  case  he  will  bolt  it, 
half  masticated.  Hay  will  not  hurt  him,  however  warm ; 
and  he  cannot  bolt  it  unchewed,  however  hungry. 

6.  Never  water  a  horse  when  warm,  unless  his  exer- 
cise is  to  be  immediately  resumed ;  and  then  resume  at 
a  quiet  gait,  until  the  water  has  had  time  to  pass  into  the 
water  sac,  a  few  minutes. 

7.  Never  throw  water  over  any  part  of  the  horse 
when  heated. 

8.  Never  allow  the  horse's  back  to  be  cooled  suddenly, 
by  washing,  or  even  removing  the  blanket  at  once  on 
coming  in. 

9.  To  cool  the  back  gradually,  the  blanket  may  be  re- 
moved and  replaced  with  a  dry  fold  next  the  horse ;  the 
wet  side  folded  in,  so  the  combined  sweat  and  dust  will  not 
bake  into  hard  caked  mud  in  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

10.  Never  take  a  fast  gait  down  hill,  nor  on  hard  road 
surfaces,  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

1 1.  In  going  up  steep  hills,  assist  your  horse  by  holding 
much  of  your  weight  by  grasping  his  mane  and  lifting. 

12.  In  watering,  always  remove  the  curb  bit,  and  see 
that  he  has  clear  water,  and  a  chance  to  drink  quietly. 

13.  Above  all,  never  use  the  bridle  reins  as  an  aid  to 
keeping  your  seat. 

8.  Adjustment  of  Equipment. — It  is  of  first  impor- 
tance that  all  the  articles  of  equipment  be  properly  ad- 
justed and  fit  the  conformation  of  the  horse.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  blanket  is  that  by  folding  it  in  different 
directions  you  can  always  present  a  clean  surface  next  to 
the  horse's  back.  The  trooper  should  be  instructed  that 
it  is  his  duty  thus  to  fold  the  blanket  in  field  service.  For 
use  in  garrison,  where  the  blankets  may  be  kept  clean  by 
washing,  they  may  be  always  folded  uniformly  so  as  to 
show  the  troop  mark  in  the  rear  corner  on  the  near  side. 


ADJUSTMENT  OF  EQUIPMENT  395 

Every  trooper  should  be  taught  in  practical  instruction  to 
whip  out  a  saddle  blanket  so  that  it  is  clean,  and  then  to 
fold  it  accurately,  and  to  be  sure  that  there  are  no  wrinkles 
in  any  of  the  interior  folds.  This  method  of  folding  and 
the  method  of  placing  the  blanket  on  the  horse's  back, 
best  explained  in  practical  instruction,  are  both  the  result 
of  long  experience.  There  is  a  good  reason  for  each 
move,  for  the  exact  position  of  each  finger,  and  efficiency 
can  best  be  attained  by  exact  conformance  with  each  little 
thing  prescribed. 

9.  The  proper  adjustment  of  the  watering  bridle  bit 
is  important,  the  same  for  the  bridoon  of  the  double  bridle. 
They  should  just  touch  the  corners  of  the  horse's  mouth, 
without  wrinkling  the  lips. 

10.  The  men  should  know  by  name  the  pommel 
and  cantle,  the  coat  straps,  the  quarter  straps  and  cincha, 
their  rings  and  safes,  the  stirrup,  stirrup  strap  and  hood, 
and  the  cincha  strap,  and  all  the  parts  of  the  bridle. 

11.  In  saddling  be  sure  to  raise  the  blanket  slightly 
under  the  pommel  arch.  The  exact  seat  of  the  saddle  on 
the  horse's  back  is  generally  controlled  by  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  horse.  Your  greatest  care  should  be  not  to  put 
it  too  far  forward  up  on  the  withers,  which  will  not  only 
interfere  with  the  freedom  of  movement  of  the  horse's 
forehand,  but  by  inclining  the  seat  of  the  saddle  to  the 
rear,  will  put  the  weight  of  the  rider  too  much  on  the  cantle 
and  result  in  saddle  sores  under  the  rear  ends  of  the  saddle 
bars.  Another  caution  is  to  see  that  the  length  of  the 
cincha  is  such  that  at  least  two  or  three  inches  are  left 
between  the  quarter  strap  safe  and  the  cincha  safe,  to 
avoid  making  a  sore  by  pinching  the  flesh  between  the 
safes.  You  will  often  find  the  cincha  too  long  for  this, 
and  every  one  should  be  familiar  with  the  method  of 
shortening  the  cincha  by  weaving  into  it  a  round  stick, 
picking  up  the  individual  strands  and  making  the  loops  on 
the  outside  so  as  to  leave  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  next 
the  horse.  In  fact  in  all  adjustment  of  equipment  you  are 
trying  to  get  the  largest  bearing  surface  possible  in  each 


396  HORSEMANSHIP 

case,  and  this  surface  always  clean  and  smooth  and  applied 
with  as  nearly  equal  pressure  throughout  as  possible.  It 
is  pinching,  or  unequal  pressure  at  some  one  point,  or  the 
rubbing  of  carelessly  adjusted  parts  of  the  pack,  that  gen- 
erally cause  saddle  sores.  Beginners  generally  cinch  too 
tight.  The  conformation  of  the  horse  influences  this,  and 
only  experience  can  show  just  how  tight  the  cinch  should 
be.     Cinch  him  just  snugly,  do  not  try  to  cut  him  in  two. 

12.  Learn  these  principles  for  fitting  the  saddle: 
There  must  be  no  pressure  on  withers,  shoulder  blades, 
backbone,  or  loins.  The  weight  of  the  whole  load  must 
be  carried  on  the  ribs,  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface 
from  the  play  of  the  shoulder  blade  to  the  last  true  rib, 
and  directly  supported  by  the  broad  back  muscles  placed 
there  by  nature  apparently  for  this  purpose. 

13.  Having  once  ascertained  the  proper  length  of 
stirrup  for  yourself  by  actually  riding  in  the  saddle,  then 
when  you  dismount  take  the  exact  measurement  of  this 
length  on  your  own  arm  by  holding  the  bottom  of  the 
stirrup  against  your  body,  in  your  arm  pit,  the  stirrup 
leather  stretched  underneath  your  outstretched  arm,  ob- 
serving where  the  tips  of  your  fingers  reach ;  and  there- 
after when  you  are  about  to  use  a  new  horse  and  saddle, 
you  may  intelligently  apply  this  measure  to  determine  the 
length  of  the  stirrup  before  mounting.  A  big  barreled 
horse  will  require  a  shorter  stirrup  than  a  thin  one. 

14.  In  unsaddling  always  remove  the  saddle  over 
the  croup.  A  good  cavalryman  is  outraged  when  he  sees  a 
careless  trooper  dragging  a  packed  saddle  directly  oflf  to 
the  near  side  over  the  horse's  back,  made  sensitive  by  the 
long  continued  pressure  and  heat  resulting  from  carrying 
the  saddle. 

15.  In  handling  the  equipment  when  oflf  the  horse 
a  good  trooper  is  always  careful  to  protect  the  bearing 
surfaces  of  his  saddle  and  blanket  to  keep  them  clean  and 
smooth. 

16.  In  bridling,  take  the  reins  in  the  right,  the 
crownpiece  in  the  left  hand ;   approach  the  horse  on  the 


THE  BRIDLE  397 

near  side,  speaking  to  him  reassuringly,  passing  the  right 
hand  along  his  neck ;  slip  the  reins  over  his  head  and  let 
them  rest  on  his  neck ;  take  the  crownpiece  in  the  right 
hand  and  the  lower  left  branch  of  the  bit  in  the  left  hand, 
the  forefinger  against  the  mouth  piece ;  bring  the  crown- 
piece  in  front  of  and  slightly  below  its  proper  position ; 
insert  the  thumb  into  the  side  of  the  mouth  above  the 
tush;  press  open  the  lower  jaw,  insert  the  bit  by  raising 
the  crownpiece,  with  the  left  hand  draw  the  ears  gently 
under  the  crownpiece,  beginning  with  the  left  ear ;  arrange 
the  forelock,  secure  the  throatlatch,  and  then  the  curb 
strap,  taking  care  not  to  set  them  too  closely. 

The  mouth  piece  of  the  curb  bit,  which  should  fit  the 
width  of  the  horse's  mouth,  rests  on  that  part  of  the  bars 
(the  lower  jaw  between  the  tushes  and  molars)  directly 
opposite  the  chin  groove ;  the  curb  strap  should  then  lie  in 
the  chin  groove  without  any  tendency  to  mount  up  out 
of  it  on  the  sharp  bones  of  the  lower  jaw.  This  position 
of  the  m>outh  piece  will  be  attained  for  the  majority  of 
horses  by  adjusting  the  cheek  straps  so  that  the  mouth 
piece  will  be  one  inch  above  the  tushes  of  the  horse  and 
two  inches  above  the  comer  teeth  of  the  mare. 

The  throatlatch  should  admit  four  fingers  between 
it  and  the  throat;  this  prevents  constriction  of  the  wind- 
pipe or  pressure  on  the  large  blood  vessels. 

The  curb  strap  should  fit  smoothly  the  chin  groove,  and 
be  loose  enough  to  admit  one  or  two  fingers  when  the 
branches  of  the  bit  are  in  line  with  the  cheek  strap. 

17.  The  whole  subsequent  success  in  managing  the 
horse  will  depend  largely  on  the  proper  adjustment  of  the 
bit  and  curb  strap.  The  adjustments  herein  described 
are  absolutely  correct  and  necessary,  particularly  that  of 
the  curb  strap.  Where  a  curb  chain  is  used  you  must  see 
that  the  links  lie  perfectly  flat  and  are  not  kinked.  The 
best  method  of  testing  the  correctness  of  the  adjustments 
about  the  bit  is  for  the  rider  to  take  hold  of  the  bit 
reins  and  draw  them  quietly  and  firmly  to  the  rear,  watch- 
ing the  bit  and  curb  strap  to  see  that  they  act  properly. 


398  HORSEMANSHIP 

the  strap  taking  hold  smoothly  in  the  chin  groove,  and  the 
horse  responding  to  the  pressure  you  are  applying  by 
yielding  his  jaw  to  the  rear.  Every  horseman  should 
understand  the  theory  of  the  curb  bit,  that  it  is  designed 
as  a  lever,  the  fulcrum  being  the  chin  groove  and  the  point 
of  the  resultant  pressure  being  the  bars  of  the  horse's 
mouth,  the  power  being  applied  at  the  end  of  the  lever 
arm  which  is  the  lower  branches  of  the  bit.  The  horse  will 
give  way  from  the  hurt,  and  the  bit  hurting  him  on  the 
upper  surface  of  his  lower  jaw,  he  carries  his  head  to 
the  rear  away  from  it.  An  improper  adjustment  that 
makes  the  curb  strap  or  chain  hurt  him  beneath  the  jaw, 
causes  him  to  carry  his  head  to  the  front  away  from  the 
hurt,  to  throw  his  head  up  when  the  bit  is  brought  in  play. 
In  this  way  an  improperly  adjusted  bit  has  often  given  a 
horse  the  almost  incurable  habit  of  constantly  throwing 
his  head  when  the  bit  is  used. 

1 8.  In  Unbridling,  hold  the  weight  of  the  bit  and  the 
bridle  in  the  right  hand  at  the  crown  piece  while  the 
left  hand  gently  disengages  the  bit  from  the  horse's  mouth, 
as  you  lower  your  right  hand ;  the  careless  trooper  neglects 
this,  allowing  the  bit  to  drop  out  and  thus  often  striking 
the  comer  teeth  of  the  horse. 

19.  To  Pack  Saddle. — ^The  details  of  this  must  be 
learned  in  practical  instruction,  from  men  of  experience ; 
and  should  be  thoroughly  famili'ar  to  the  trooper  before 
field  service  is  undertaken.  When  the  troop  is  to  march 
in  the  morning,  there  will  be  no  time  for  giving  instruc- 
tions ;  and  the  horse  may  be  incapacitated  for  further  ser- 
vice, by  one  day's  march  under  an  illy  packed  saddle. 

20.  To  Lead  Out. — The  trooper  grasps  both  bridoon 
reins  with  the  right  hand,  back  up,  six  inches  behind  the 
bit,  forefinger  separating  the  reins  ;  then,  holding  the  hand 
well  up  and  firm,  leads  his  horse,  without  looking  at  him, 
to  take  his  place  in  the  ranks.  He  should  lead  into  this 
line  from  far  enough  in  rear  so  he  may  come  straight  up 
into  his  position,  at  right  angles  to  the  front,  one  yard  from 
the  man  on  his  right. 


POSITION  MOUNTED  399 

If  the  horse  resists  being  led,  take  the  reins  from  his 
neck  and  with  the  ends  in  the  left  hand,  lead  as  before. 
Never  face  the  horse,  unless  you  want  to  stop  him.  When 
leading  through  a  low  or  narrow  doorway,  where  he  is 
likely  to  rush,  quiet  him  by  voice  or  hand  caress ;  or  even 
walk  backward  facing  him,  one  hand  hold  of  each  rein. 

21.  To  Mount. — The  actual  process  of  mounting 
should  be  learned  practically,  the  points  being  to  main- 
tain control  of  the  horse,  to  avoid  displacing  the  saddle 
by  pulling  it  over  toward  you,  and  to  bring  your  weight 
into  the  saddle  gently,  by  lowering  your  body  into  the 
saddle  quietly  with  your  leg  muscles. 

It  is  a  perfect  nuisance  at  drill  to  have  certain  horses 
stepping  about,  and  even  rushing  to  the  front,  while  the 
trooper  is  executing  Prepare  to  mount;  and  even  more 
horses  have  the  bad  habit  of  starting  off  the  instant  the 
rider  settles  into  the  saddle.  These  habits  may  be  easily 
corrected,  and  every  man  should  make  it  his  business  to 
see  that  they  are  corrected.  A  little  patience  and  time 
once  devoted  to  teaching  the  horse  to  stand  quietly,  not 
only  while  you  are  mounting,  but  after  you  are  mounted, 
and  until  you  have  given  him  the  correct  signal  to  move 
forward,  will  teach  the  horse  to  do  this,  and  he  will  con- 
tinue thus  to  stand  quietly  if,  whenever  you  mount  him, 
you  will  always  see  that  he  does  not  start  off  until  you 
give  him  the  signal.  The  trouble  is  that  when  men  mount 
individually,  and  not  by  command,  they  invariably  let  the 
horse  move  off  at  will,  and  do  not  take  pains  to  see  that 
he  stands  until  they  give  him  the  signal  to  go. 

22.  Position  Mounted. — Learn  these  fundamental 
rules  and  their  reasons ;  you  will  find  them  most  helpful. 

1.  Body  balanced  in  middle  of  horse's  back,  where 
horse  motion  is  least  communicated  to  the  rider,  and 
weight  is  most  easily  carried  by  the  horse. 

2.  Head  erect  and  square  to  the  front,  eyes  sweeping 
the  horizon;  otherwise  your  body  will  incline  forward, 
and  you  will  miss  the  rare  pleasure  of  the  ride. 


400  HORSEMANSHIP 

3.  Chin  slightly  drawn  in;  to  prevent  the  head  and 
shoulders  drooping  forward. 

4.  Shoulders  square  and  well  thrown  back,  and  chest 
pushed  out ;  to  allow  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  shoulders  in 
the  trot  to  expand  the  chest,  rather  than  to  contract  it,  as 
happens  if  shoulders  droop  to  the  front. 

5.  Back  straight,  above  the  waist  line ;  to  assist  in  keep- 
ing shoulders  back  and  head  erect, 

6.  Back  curved,  convex  to  the  rear,  below  the  waist 
line;  this  opens  the  vertebrae  of  the  lower  back  bone,  and 
makes  it  a  spring,  to  take  up  the  thrust  of  the  horse  mo- 
tiop.  This  makes  the  close  seat  in  the  trot  reasonable  and 
comfortable,  while  the  rigid  spinal  column  with  the  verte- 
brae closed  makes  it  almost  impossible.  This  giving  way 
to  the  rear  with  the  lower  part  of  the  back  is  absolutely 
essential  to  suppleness  and  a  good  seat,  and  can  be  done 
without  effecting  the  erect  carriage  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  body. 

7.  Rein  in  each  hand,  coming  in  under  little  finger  and 
going  out  over  forefinger,  held  by  pressure  of  the  thumb, 
reins  bearing  equally  on  the  horse's  mouth ;  to  assure  sit- 
ting squarely  in  the  saddle,  faced  exactly  to  the  front. 

8.  Buttocks  bearing  equally  on  saddle,  the  seat  being  as 
flat  as  possible ;  to  increase  friction,  and  make  easier  the 
preservation  of  the  seat  by  balance. 

9.  Legs  stretched  by  their  weight  alone,  hanging 
naturally,  the  flat  of  the  thighs  and  knees  bearing  on  the 
horse  equally ;  to  add  firmness  to  the  seat,  and  a  more  en- 
during connection  with  the  horse. 

10.  Legs  from  knee  down  to  hang  vertical  and  free; 
that  they  may  be  used  in  controlling  the  horse,  without  de- 
ranging your  seat. 

11.  Feet  resting  in  natural  position  in  stirrups;  which 
brings  the  calf  of  your  leg  into  gentle  contact  with  the 
horse's  sides,  without  allowing  your  heels  to  touch  the 
horse,  unless  desired  for  use  in  control. 

12.  The  body  from  the  hips  up  should  be  movable,  and 
should,  in  a  measure,  yield  to  the  motions  of  the  horse ; 


REINS,  BIT,  AND  SPUR  401 

from  the  hips  to  the  knees,  immovable  and  close  to  the 
horse ;  from  the  knees  down,  movable. 

13.  The  arms  move  freely  at  the  shoulders  to  avoid 
communicating  the  motion  of  the  body  to  the  reins ;  the 
hands  oscillate  slightly  with  the  motion  of  the  horse,  but 
otherwise  they  are  stationary,  except  to  direct  the  horse. 

14.  During  the  earlier  lessons,  the  position  of  the  re- 
cruit is  necessarily  one  of  constraint.  He  should  make 
every  effort  to  relax,  and  acquire  suppleness  as  soon  as 
possible. 

15.  No  man  can  be  said  to  be  a  good  horseman  who 
has  not  a  firm,  well-balanced  seat ;  it  is  therefore  of  the 
utmost  importance ;  it  will  assist  the  horse ;  the  want  of 
it  will  impede  the  horse's  actions,  and  make  sore  backs. 

16.  The  great  importance  of  acquiring  a  seat  and 
balance  quite  independently  of  the  reins  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. You  should  exercise  frequently  in  riding 
without  reins,  hands  carried  in  the  lap,  practically  the 
same  position  as  with  reins ;  not  with  arms  folded,  which 
gives  a  different  balance. 

23.  Holding  the  Reins. — In  using  the  double  bridle, 
the  position  of  the  reins,  when  in  both  hands,  is  with  the 
snaffle  or  bridoon  rein  coming  in  under  the  little  finger  in 
each  hand,  the  bit  rein  coming  in  above  the  little  finger 
between  it  and  the  third  finger.  The  bight  carried  as  here- 
tofore. 

24.  In  taking  the  reins  in  the  left  hand,  the  left  hand 
is  carried  back  up,  the  bridoon  reins  are  outside,  the  bit 
reins  inside.  From  left  to  right  in  the  hand  comes  first  the 
left  bridoon  rein  outside  the  little  finger,  next  the  left  bit 
rein  between  the  little  and  third  fingers,  next  the  right  bit 
rein,  between  the  third  and  second  fingers,  and  then  the 
right  bridoon  rein  between  the  second  and  first  fingers. 
The  bights  of  the  reins  are  kept  distinct,  so  as  to  be  readily 
picked  up  by  the  right  hand  in  adjusting  the  reins  and  as- 
sisting in  using  one  bit  or  the  other.  The  bight  of  the 
bridoon  rein  goes  out  over  the  forefinger,  held  down  by 
the  thumb ;  the  bight  of  the  bit  rein  over  the  second  finger 

26 


402  HORSEMANSHIP 

between  it  and  the  first  finger.  The  right  hand,  unless  oc- 
cupied with  the  saber,  pistol  or  rifle,  is  carried  near  the 
left  hand,  going  to  its  assistance  whenever  necessary. 

Adjustments  are  made  by  the  right  hand  on  the  bight, 
pulling  the  rein  through  the  relaxed  fingers  of  the  left,  and 
regrasping  with  the  left. 

In  retaking  reins  in  both  hands,  you  have  but  to  insert 
the  little  finger  of  the  right  hand  back  up,  between  the  two 
right  reins  as  they  come  into  the  left  hand,  grasp  them  and 
turn  both  hands  back  out. 

25.  The  Bit. — The  curb  bridle  alone  has  practically 
been  discarded  by  all  horsemen.  Where  but  one  bit  is  to 
be  used  most  horsemen  prefer  the  snafifle  to  the  curb. 
Some  troops  are  so  well  trained  that  they  execute  even 
the  mounted  combat  exercises  with  precision  and  control, 
using  the  snaffle  bit  only.  The  theory  of  the  curb  bit  in 
the  service  was  to  make  sure  by  brute  force  of  the  control 
of  even  an  untrained  horse  by  an  untrained  rider.  This 
idea  has  now  given  way  to  the  application  of  intelligence 
and  understanding  in  his  control. 

26.  The  Spur. — The  use  of  the  spur  as  an  aid,  is 
like  the  addition  of  a  sting  to  the  leg  pressure.  You  must 
use  it  intelligently,  and  only  after  having  first  applied  the 
normal  aids.  Having  applied  the  proper  amount  and 
kind  of  leg  pressure,  if  the  horse  does  not  respond  con- 
tinue the  pressure,  turn  out  your  toes  and  apply  the  sting 
smartly.  Thereafter  the  horse  will  very  likely  respond  to 
the  leg  alone.  The  main  use  of  the  spur  is  to  let  the  horse 
know  you  have  it  on.  If  you  neglect  to  wear  it,  the  old 
soldier  horse  knows  it  and  will  take  advantage  of  you.  Its 
use  as  a  punishment  should  be  rare,  and  never  brutal. 

It  is  not  worn  by  beginners  until  their  seat  is  assured, 
unless  to  cure  them  of  the  bad  habit  of  trying  to  sta.v  on  the 
horse  by  hanging  on  to  him  with  their  heels. 

27.  The  Saddle. — Beginners  should  take  their  first 
lessons  not  only  on  quiet  horses,  but  in  the  saddle.  When 
they  have  learned  something  of  balance,  and  can  control 
their  horses,  and  can  keep  their  seats  without  assistance 


THE  AIDS  403 

from  their  hands,  it  will  be  time  to  develop  the  natural  seat 
by  riding,  first  without  stirrups,  and  then  bare  back. 
The  only  question  as  to  this  form  of  training  is  one  of 
time.  It  is  splendid  if  you  can  afford  the  time,  but  a 
cavalryman  has  to  learn  to  be  a  soldier  as  well  as  a  horse- 
man, and  if  time  is  limited,  work  in  the  saddle  alone  will 
advance  him  more  rapidly,  and  well  enough,  though  not 
so  thoroughly.  Stirrups  are  crossed  in  front  of  the  pom- 
mel, for  "  mounted  exercises  "  with  the  saddle  instead  of 
bareback,  and  for  practice  in  riding  the  trot  without  stir- 
rups— this  latter  to  get  the  horse  well  up  into  the  man's 
crotch,  and  the  man's  seat  well  down  on  the  horse. 

28.  The  Aids. — The  next  step  is  to  learn  how  to 
control  the  movements  of  the  horse,  how  to  make  him 
understand  what  you  want  him  to  do.  This  is  done  by  the 
application  of  the  "  Aids." 

Before  attempting  to  learn  to  use  them,  get  the  fol- 
lowing picture  clear :  The  half  ton  mass  of  the  horse,  sup- 
ported in  front  by  the  forelegs,  behind  by  the  hind  legs, 
animate  with  powerful  muscles  and  generally  a  Christian 
spirit ;  and  the  rider  sitting  on  top  of  the  middle  of  this, 
to  control  it  by  the  aids,  the  reins  controlling  the  fore 
hand,  that  which  is  in  front  of  the  rider ;  his  legs  control- 
ling the  haunches,  that  which  is  behind  him.  And  inasmuch 
as  whenever  the  horse  moves,  his  whole  body  is  involved, 
there  is  required  a  proper  coordination  between  the  ap- 
plications of  the  reins  and  the  legs,  to  -avoid  demanding 
conflicting  movements  of  the  horse's  extremities. 

The  rider  is  now  ready  to  mount  a  well  trained  horse, 
which*  will  respond  readily  to  the  aids,  where  he  will 
rapidly  gain  facility  in  their  proper  use,  the  horse  being 
the  teacher.  Meantime  he  may  learn  the  following,  and 
after  he  has  acquired  the  habit  of  instinctively  using  the 
aids  correctly  in  harmony  with  each  other,  he  may  begin 
to  control  horses  not  so  well  trained. 

29.  The  reins  serve  to  prepare  the  horse  to  move, 
and  to  guide,  support,  and  halt  him ;  their  action  should 
be  gradual  and  in  harmony  with  that  of  the  legs. 


404  HORSEMANSHIP 

In  using  them,  the  arms  should  have  free  action  at 
the  shoulder;  when  a  light  pressure  on  the  bit  is  desired, 
the  action  of  the  hand  should  be  at  the  wrist ;  for  greater 
pressure,  the  elbow  should  be  carried  back,  but  unthout 
raising  the  hatid. 

The  horse  is  guided  by  pressing  with  the  rein,  bring- 
ing it  to  bear,  against  the  side  of  his  neck ;  he  moves  the 
forehand  in  the  direction  away  from  this  pressure. 

In  riding,  the  bridle  hand  should  be  kept  steady  and 
ought  not  to  move  with  the  body ;  it  should  merely  oscil- 
late with  the  motion  of  the  horse's  head  ;  at  the  same  time 
it  must  be  kept  light,  for  the  bit  causes  pain  if  pressed 
constantly  on  the  mouth,  destroys  its  sensibility,  and 
makes  the  horse's  mouth  hard. 

The  hand  is  light  when  there  is  an  almost  imper- 
ceptible alternate  feeling  and  easing  of  the  hand  in  har- 
mony with  the  motion  of  the  horse,  by  which  the  delicacy 
of  the  mouth  is  preserved,  and  the  horse  made  to  carry 
himself  light. 

That  hand  is  best  which,  by  giving  and  taking  prop- 
erly and  keeping  constant  touch  of  bit,  controls  the  horse 
with  the  least  force,  and  will  best  preserve  the  mouth. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  recommended  that  recruits  ride  with  one 
rein  in  each  hand ;  this  will  prevent  the  bad  habit  of 
holding  the  left  shoulder  advanced. 

30.  The  legs  assist  the  reins  in  controlling  the  horse. 
Closing  them  quietly  and  firmly,  particularly  near  the 
knees,  serves  to  steady  him.  Closing  the  lower  legs 
equally,  with  slight  pressure,  prepares  him  to  move,  or  if 
moving,  keeps  him  up  to  the  hand.  Closing  the  lower  legs 
with  elastic  pressure  at  the  same  time  releasing  the  forces 
of  the  forehand,  urges  him  forward;  if  done  in  conjunc- 
tion with  restraint  of  the  forehand  by  the  bit,  it  assists 
him  to  halt  in  equilibrium.  Pressure  with  one  leg  only, 
causes  him  to  move  his  haunches  in  the  direction  away 
from  this  pressure.  All  pressures  designated  to  incite 
motion  must  be  given  with  elastic  muscular  action.  As 
much  delicacy  of  touch  may  be  developed  here,  as  in  using 


TO  MOVE  OUT  405 

the  reins.    A  dull  clinging  pressure,  or  thumping  with  the 
heels,  is  deadly. 

31.  Forward. — The  first  movement  to  learn  is  to 
start  the  horse  from  a  halt.  As  in  all  movements,  the  pre- 
Hminary  step  is  to  ''  gather  the  horse,"  by  slightly  closing 
the  legs;  and  feeling  the  mouth,  by  bringing  a  gentle 
pressure  on  the  bit.  Equivalent  to  saying  to  the  horse, 
"  Get  ready,  wake  up,  we  are  going  to  move,  get  yourself 
in  hand  to  do  it  smartly."  It  helps  the  horse  to  collect 
his  forces,  to  get  into  an  equilibrium  from  which  he  may 
'  move  collectedly  in  any  required  direction.  At  the  in- 
stant you  want  the  horse  to  move,  yield  the  pressure  on 
the  bit,  and  simultaneously  close  the  legs  with  equal 
elastic  pressure,  until  he  steps  off.  This  is  the  first  of  the 
movements  of  the  horse  you  must  learn  how  to  control 
with  precision  in  order  to  participate  in  an  accurate  close 
order  drill.  It  is  not  to  let  the  horse  start  when  he  gets 
ready — when  he  sees  the  adjoining  horses  start.  It  is  so  to 
control  him  that  he  will  step  off  at  the  command  March, 
as  do  > the  men  in  the  dismounted  squad.  So,,  having 
gathered  his  forces,  brought  him  to  attention  at  the  pre- 
paratory command,  you  put  the  necessary  muscular  elastic- 
ity into  the  pressure  of  your  legs  behind  the  girth  to 
lift  him  forward  at  the  command  March.  Thereafter 
you  use  only  such  pressure  as  is  necessary  to  keep  him  up 
to  the  desired  gait.  The  amount  of  pressure  necessary 
to  start  him  depends  on  the  temperament  of  your  horse. 
You  will  soon  learn  it  in  each  case.  Use  both  legs  uni- 
formly.   Never  kick  or  thump  him. 

32.  Halt. — ^This  is  the  next  movement  to  learn,  and 
this  may  be  from  any  gait,  increasing  the  force  of  the  aids 
as  necessary.  First  gather  the  horse  without  slackening 
the  gait,  then  at  the  desired  instant  rein  in,  by  gradually 
and  firmly  bringing  the  hands  toward  the  body,  turning 
them  on  the  wrist  and  carrying  the  elbows  slightly  to  the 
rear  rvithout  raising  the  hands;  at  the  same  time  closing 
the  legs  to  bring  his  forces  under  him.  When  he  has  halted 
relax  the  hands  and  legs.     Remember  the  pressure  of 


406  HORSEMANSHIP 

the  legs,  which  is  so  important  and  yet  so  often  neglected, 
and  their  steadying  the  horse  until  he  is  firmly  estab- 
lished in  the  halt.  Experiment  with  this  leg  pressure 
and  satisfy  yourself  of  its  value.  You  can  halt  a  trained 
horse  with  your  legs  alone.  The  wonderful  Numidian 
light  cavalry  of  Hannibal's  army  rode  bareback  and  not 
a  single  strap  on  their  horses. 

33.  Changing  Direction. — This  is  the  next  move- 
ment to  learn,  and  done  on  the  arc  of  a  circle  of  two  yards 
radius,  is  the  fundamental  movement  for  the  individual 
trooper  to  be  used  throughout  all  drills,  turning  his  horse 
on  the  circumference  of  a  circle  twelve  feet  in  diameter, 
and  not  allowing  him  to  change  his  gait.  It  requires 
hands  and  legs ;  the  horse's  feet  should  track  on  the  circle, 
the  hind  feet  in  trace  of  the  fore.  To  turn  to  the  right  the 
horse  is  first  gathered,  then  at  the  command  of  execution 
your  legs  give  the  forward  impulse  to  the  mass  of  the 
horse.  As  he  steps  off  the  left  rein  is  brought  against  the 
left  side  of  his  neck  and  guides  him  into  the  turn  to  the 
right.  It  may  or  may  not  be  necessary  to  use  your  legs 
further, 'depending  on  the  action  of  the  horse.  Remember 
it  is  required  only  that  he  keep  up  the  uniform  gait  around 
the  arc  of  the  circle  in  the  desired  direction.  You  may 
need  to  use  both  legs  to  urge  him  on,  you  may  need  to  use 
the  left  to  keep  him  from  swinging  his  haunches  too  far 
around  turning  rather  on  the  forehand,  you  may  need  to 
use  the  right  leg  a  little  more  to  the  rear  than  the  left  to 
keep  him  on  the  circle.  As  the  turn  is  completed,  cease 
application  of  the  aids  used  in  turning  and  move  off 
straightened  out  in  the  new  direction. 

34.  Backing. — Keep  a  firm  seat,  hold  both  legs 
close,  rein  in  firmly  and  gradually  until  the  horse  yields 
and  steps  to  the  rear ;  then  immediately  yield  the  hand  and 
relax  the  legs ;  apply  them  again  before  he  actually  stops, 
and  thus  by  alternate  give  and  take,  keep  him  moving 
continuously.  A  quiet  regular  execution  of  this  move- 
ment is  a  good  test  of  horsemanship  and  training.  Thus 
to  lead  with  his  hmd  feet  is  an  unaccustomed  action  for 


TO  BACK  AND  TO  TROT  407 

the  horse  and  he  does  not  take  to  it  kindly.  As  the  ten- 
dency is  to  drag  the  hind  feet,  the  haunches  should  be 
lightened  by  shifting  the  centre  of  gravity  forward  as  far 
as  possible.  This  requires  that  the  horse's  head  be  held 
low,  rather  than  raised,  hence  the  man's  hands  are  low  and 
to  the  front.  And  above  all  the  rider's  weight  should  go 
forward,  supporting  himself  by  clasping  firmly  with  his 
knees.  Nothing  can  be  worse  than  leaning  well  back  and 
pulling  with  upraised  hands,  yet  we  often  see  this  exhibi- 
tion. When  the  horse  yields  and  steps  back,  release  the 
pressure  of  the  bit  to  encourage  him.  Watching  closely 
the  feel  of  his  body,  as  you  realize  that  he  is  about  to 
settle  into  equilibrium,  quietly  give  him  another  signal  by 
pressure  with  the  bit  and  thus  by  give  and  take  keep  him 
moving  quietly  and  steadily. 

The  legs  must  be  held  in  instant  readiness  to  check 
any  movement  of  the  haunches  to  either  side.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  teach  a  tractable  horse  to  back  accurately  on  a 
figure  eight  of  two  yards'  radius,  and  is  good  practice  in 
controlling  the  movements  of  the  haunches  by  your  legs. 

35.  The  Trot. — ^This  requires  an  application  of  the 
same  aids  as  "Forward,"  but  with  more  elastic  force, 
the  exact  amount  depending  on  the  willingness  of  the 
horse.  He  must  respond  instantly,  to  make  drills  of  pre- 
cision possible,  and  it  is  for  each  man  to  see  that  he  puts  the 
requisite  force  into  his  signal.  To  sit  the  trot  in  the  mili- 
tary close  seat,  free  from  horse  motion  in  the  hands,  arms, 
and  shoulders,  has  been  the  pride  of  American  cavalry- 
men. It  requires  balance  and  also  relaxed  muscles,  tak- 
ing up  the  horse  motion  in  your  flesh  and  in  the  give  and 
take  of  your  lower  backbone  and  the  knee  and  ankle 
joints.  The  rider  is  at  one  with  his  horse,  their  two  bodies 
moving  as  one,  and  therein  comes  the  exhilaration  of  long 
rides  at  the  trot.  Here  comes  the  first  temptation  for  the 
recruit  to  maintain  his  seat  by  hanging  on  the  reins,  ruin- 
ing the  horse's  mouth.  It  is  better  that  he  ride  with  a 
slack  rein  without  any  touch,  or  that  his  horse  be  led  and 
he  carry  his  hands  in  his  lap,  until  he  is  so  secure  in  his 


408  HORSEMANSHIP 

balance  that  he  will  not  want  to  pull  on  the  reins  to  main- 
tain his  seat.  There  is  no  continuous  grip  of  the  legs  in 
maintaining  this  seat — tired  muscles  will  ultimately  make 
such  a  seat  impossible.  The  grip  is  taken  instinctively 
when  emergency  makes  it  necessary. 

The  practice  of  "  rising  to  the  trot  "  is  constantly  gain- 
ing in  favor,  and  is  permissible  at  all  times.  It  is  often  a 
relief  to  both  horse  and  rider.  If  you  use  it,  observe  this 
one  caution.  When  the  rider  rises  to  the  trot,  the  horse 
is  carrying  the  rider's  weight  entirely  on  the  one  diagonal 
pair  of  legs  on  which  he  rises.  It  is  only  fair  to  the  horse 
that  the  rider  equalize  this  by  shifting  from  time  to  time 
to  the  other  diagonal.  Unless  you  consciously  do  this, 
you  will  find  yourself  rising  constantly  on  the  same  leg. 

36.  Decreasing  the  Gait. — This  requires  the  same 
aids  as  executing  the  halt  from  a  walk  not  forgetting  the 
pressure  of  the  legs.  The  force  of  their  application  is 
measured  by  the  response  desired ;  and  is  released  into  a 
steadying  force  only,  as  soon  as  the  desired  result  is  ob- 
tained. The  same  principle  applies  in  the  use  of  the  aids 
in  all  changes  of  speed,  either  faster  or  slower,  in  break- 
ing from  a  halt  into  a  trot,  and  in  halting  from  a  trot,  it  is 
a  question  of  the  requisite  degree  of  force  to  be  put  into 
the  application  of  the  same  aids  described  above. 

37.  The  Gallop. — Here  is  the  gait  constantly  de- 
manded of  the  horse  in  the  fast  troop  and  squadron  drills 
of  precision,  and  the  necessary  gait  for  the  quick  sure 
maneuvering  of  cavalry  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  in 
mounted  combat.  For  either  purpose,  horse  and  rider 
should  be  perfectly  at  ease  in  this  gait,  sure  of  each  other 
and  themselves,  devoid  of  excitement  and  under  quick, 
sure  control.  This  requires  much  practice  in  individual 
work  at  this  gait,  until  man  and  horse  are  so  familiar  and 
at  home  with  it  as  to  take  it  as  a  matter  of  course.  Yet 
Post  Regulations  generally  forbid  a  trooper  ever  to  ride 
at  a  gallop  out  of  ranks,  and  but  few  opportunities  are 
ever  given  him  for  training  in  individual  horsemanship  at 
a  gallop.    A  grave  mistake,  which  invariably  results  in 


THE  GALLOP  i09 

confusion,  excitement,  and  all  manner  of  breaks  at  the 
fast  drills,  and  renders  skillful,  daring  maneuvering  in 
the  presence  of  the  enemy  all  but  impossible. 

Men  should  be  taught  first  how  to  handle  their  horses 
in  the  canter  and  then  in  the  gallop.  Then  they  should  be 
encouraged  to  work  at  these  gaits,  though  never  on  hard 
roads  that  will  pound  up  the  horses'  legs. 

In  this  gait  the  man  should  sit  deep  into  the  saddle, 
completely  relaxed,  his  body  swinging  freely  with  that  of 
the  horse.  It  is  here  that  he  "  polishes  leather  "  as  he 
slides  on  the  seat  of  his  saddle.  Sitting  the  horse  properly 
this  gait  is  most  comfortable,  is  delightful;  and  it  is  a 
poor  rider  whose  body  rises  from  the  seat  of  the  saddle  at 
the  gallop,  generally  due  to  stiffness  of  the  backbone  and 
loins,  or  too  much  gripping  with  the  legs. 

In  a  later  analysis  of  the  horses'  gaits,  we  will  describe 
in  detail  the  movements  of  his  feet  in  galloping  "  true," 
"  false,"  and  "  disunited."  The  important  thing  now  is 
to  learn  to  distinguish  by  the  feel,  whether  galloping  true 
or  false  (you  will  have  no  trouble  in  telling  when  dis- 
united), and  to  know  how  to  put  him  into  the  lead  he 
should  have.  A  good  rule  for  remembering  the  correct 
lead  is  that  when  galloping  in  a  circle  the  forefoot  on  the 
inside  must  come  down  last.  This  is  reasonable,  since  in 
galloping  on  a  circle  to  the  left  as  the  feet  come  down  in 
succession  each  will  strike  just  a  little  more  to  the  left 
than  the  one  immediately  preceding  it.  Hence  if  he  be 
galloping  false  the  right  forefoot  will  strike  the  ground  to 
the  left  of  the  left  forefoot,  which  is  liable  to  trip  him  or 
make  him  lose  his  balance.  This  makes  it  necessary  that 
the  rider  know  how  he  is  leading,  and  be  able  to  put  him 
into  the  correct  lead  before  turning  him  at  all  sharply. 

38.  To  take  the  gallop  from  a  trot,  gather  the  horse, 
then  bring  his  haunches  under  him  by  closing  your  legs, 
and  reining  in  with  a  firm  light  pressure;  this  accom- 
plished, support  him  with  the  right  rein  against  his  neck, 
and  press  the  left  leg  with  vigor ;  these  aids  put  him  over 
the  left  hind  leg,  and  release  the  right  fore  and  hind  legs. 


410  HORSEMANSHIP 

so  they  naturally  lead  in  the  gallop.  As  soon  as  he  rises, 
release  both  rein  and  leg,  and  use  the  aids  to  steady  him 
in  the  gallop,  keeping  him  up  to  the  bit.  These  are,  of 
course,  reversed  to  give  him  the  opposite  lead.  If  he  does 
not  respond  readily  in  taking  the  correct  lead,  put  him 
into  the  gallop  on  the  arc  of  a  small  circle. 

39.  The  canter,  is  a  short  collected  gallop ;  the 
horse's  forehand  is  raised,  his  whole  figure  is  collected 
and  shortened,  his  neck  bowed  and  his  head  drawn  in, 
and  he  moves  by  the  spring  of  the  haunches.  It  is  used  in 
the  riding-hall  exercises  and  mounted  gymnastics,  and  is 
the  gait  for  beginners,  preliminary  to  the  gallop. 

It  is  particularly  important  in  learning  the  work  of 
these  fast  gaits  that  the  trooper  first  get  it  right  himself, 
from  practice  with  a  well-trained  horse,  under  the  obser- 
vation of  an  instructor  keen  enough  to  be  able  to  tell  him 
when  he  is  doing  the  right  thing  and  when  the  wrong. 

40.  To  Turn  on  the  Fore  Hand. — Described  to  the 
right.  Reverse  the  aids  to  turn  to  the  left.  Having 
gathered  the  horse,  close  the  right  leg  behind  the  girth 
until  the  horse  steps  to  the  left  with  his  hind  feet,  keeping 
him  straight  and  preventing  him  from  stepping  off  with 
his  fore  feet  by  supporting  him  with  the  left  leg  and  the 
reins ;  relieve  the  pressure  of  the  right  leg  as  soon  as  the 
horse  obeys.  Continue  application  of  these  means  until 
the  horse  has  turned  to  the  required  degree ;  the  right  fore- 
foot should  remain  in  place.  If  the  horse  does  not  obey  the 
pressure  of  the  legs  at  first,  open  slightly  the  right  rein. 

This  movement  has  its  sole  application  in  the  pivot's 
execution  of  the  wheels  by  fours  at  drill.  It  is  of  no  other 
use,  and  is  bad  for  cavalry  discipline,  as  it  is  directly  op- 
posed to  freedom  of  movement,  and  has  only  an  injurious 
effect  on  the  horse,  particularly  at  the  fast  gaits.  It  will 
undoubtedly  be  executed  on  a  movable  pivot  in  the  revised 
drill  regulations.  In  executing  it  as  herein  described,  give 
yourself  closest  attention  to  watching  the  horse's  fore- 
hand, to  check  with  the  reins  any  movement  he  starts  to 
make  to  the  front  or  to  either  side,  and  with  the  legs  any 


TURNING  AND  JUMPING  411 

movement  to  the  rear.  By  giving  attention  you  can  feel 
his  body  start  in  the  direction  he  is  planning  to  step,  and  if 
you  are  holding  the  aid^  ready  for  instant  application,  you 
can  use  them  quickly  enough  to  stop  him  from  going 
wrong.  As  long  as  the  wheel  by  fours  is  part  of  our  drill 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  every  trooper  be  able  to 
execute  this  turn  on  the  forehand  with  perfect  precision. 

41.  To  Turn  on  the  Haunches. — Increase  the  aids 
for  gathering  him,  until  his  haunches  are  well  under 
him,  keep  him  up  to  the  bit,  then  with  the  left  rein  force  his 
forehand  to  turn  to  the  right,  pivoting  on  the  hind  foot. 
This  requires  close  attention,  and  control  of  his  forces, 
particularly  with  the  legs  to  prevent  his  backing,  or  swing- 
ing his  haunches  to  the  left.  It  is  not  used  at  drill,  but  is  of 
particular  value  in  individual  work  where  an  abrupt  turn 
must  be  made  at  speed,  as  in  playing  polo.  You  will  find 
few  horses  doing  it  accurately  from  which  to  learn.  You 
may  later  train  your  own  horse  to  do  it. 

42.  The  Passage. — Used  in  drill  when  required  to 
■gain  ground  directly  to  the  right  or  left  without  moving  to 
the  front,  as  in  closing  in  to  the  right  when  in  line  at  a 
halt.  All  cavalry  horses  should  have  no  difficulty  in  learn- 
ing it.  Gather  the  horse,  and  incline  his  body  slightly  to 
the  right,  keep  him  up  to  the  bit  with  both  legs,  give  pres- 
sure with  both  left  rein  and  left  leg,  to  make  him  move  with 
forehand  and  haunches  simultaneously  to  the  right.  His 
body  remains  inclined.  He  sidesteps  along  two  parallel 
tracks,  "each  left  foot  passing  in  front  of  its  mate  as  he 
crosses  his  legs  in  the  steps.  Close  attention  is  necessary 
to  keep  his  forces  working  truly. 

43.  Jumping. — Horses  and  men  must  know  how  to 
jump  safely  in  field  service.  Attention  must  be  paid  to 
guarding  against  the  horse  rushing  his  jumps,  and  against 
disgusting  him  with  jumping  by  repeating  too  often  at  a 
hurdle,  and  by  requiring  jumps  that  are  too  high. 

The  horse  that  is  having  his  first  experience  in  jumping 
is  not  sure  of  his  balance,  does  not  know  how  to  handle  his 
feet,  and  is  consequently  fearful  of  falling.    He  should  be 


412  HORSEMANSHIP 

practiced  without  a  rider,  until  he  is  quite  at  ease  in  the 
jumps.  Even  then  his  first  experience  with  caring*  for  the 
added  weight  of  the  rider  should  be  with  a  good  rider  who 
will  not  shift  his  weight  all  over  the  place. 

44.  Where  possible  it  is  of  the  greatest  advantage 
to  a  man  and  horse  to  begin  by  taking  natural  obstacles 
out  of  doors  in  country  trails — this  is  really  important. 
They  appear  part  of  nature  and  to  take  them  appears 
reasonable.  By  care  the  horse  learns  to  like  to  jump  rather 
than  to  hate  it — too  often  the  result  of  riding  hall  train- 
ing. Another  caution :  so  many  men  end  every  lesson  by 
demanding  a  jump  so  high  that  the  horse  refuses  it,  leav- 
ing this  his  last  impression.  By  continually  raising  the 
jump  as  the  horse  accomplishes  each  in  turn,  they  exceed 
his  power  of  accomplishment.  Then  they  quit,  the  horse 
tired  and  disgusted.    You  can  see  how  harmful  this  is. 

45.  In  military  jumping  the  prime  consideration  is 
security — the  soldier  must  stay  with  his  horse.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  in  the  excitement  of  campaign  any  horse  who 
has  learned  how  to  jump  reasonable  obstacles  in  peace 
training  will  take  any  necessary  jumps.  The  seat  recom- 
mended, therefore,  is  one  that  gives  security  rather 
than  the  seat  of  the  horseshow  exhibitor,  whose  purpose 
is  to  help  the  horse  over  the  last  possible  inch  of  a  formal 
jump  in  carefully  prepared  conditions,  indifferent  to 
whether  or  not  he  loses  his  own  seat. 

For  high  jumps  3  feet  and  for  broad  jumps  8  feet  are 
considered  the  maximum  limits  for  regular  training. 
Come  at  the  high  jump  at  a  quiet  collected  gallop,  at 
the  broad  jump  at  an  extended  gallop.  The  horse  must 
have  free  use  of  his  head  and  forehand  in  both  jumps,  in 
taking  off  and  in  landing. 

46.  A  horse  that  hurries  or  rushes  will  become  an 
uncertain  and  unsafe  jumper.  If  impatient  in  going  up  to 
the  bar,  he  should  be  halted,  reined  back,  halted  and  tried 
again  until  he  takes  it  cooly. 

Horses  are  first  taught  to  jump  the  ditch,  then  the 
bar.     They  are  equipped  with  the  watering  bridle,  and 


RULES  FOR  JUMPING  413 

are  led  by  a  steady  horse  that  is  accustomed  to  jumping,  or 
this  instruction  may  be  given  on  the  longe. 

The  horses  are  taken  in  the  open  field  and  practiced 
at  jumping  shallow  ditches,  fallen  logs,  very  low  fences, 
etc.  If  the  horse  refuses  to  take  the  jump,  the  instructor 
may  give  aid  with  the  whip,  but  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
terrify  him.  If  the  horse  be  timid  it  is  advisable  to  place 
the  bar  on  the  ground  until  he  passes  over  it  without 
alarm.  Great  discretion  must  be  used  in  applying  the 
whip,  and  the  horses  will  not  be  required  to  jump  re- 
peatedly over  the  same  thing  or  at  the  same  place. 

If  the  rider  carry  a  switch  or  whip,  it  should  be  ap- 
plied at  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  make  him  raise  his 
fore  feet,  and  at  the  instant  he  is  braced  or  crouched  for 
the  jump. 

47.  Suppleness  of  your  body  is  the  fundamental 
consideration  for  your  seat ;  picking  the  horse  up  between 
your  legs  at  the  jump  the  consideration  for  control. 
Your  muscles  are  elastic — in  reality  you  jump  with  your 
horse.  Yes,  there  is  the  secret  of  success — you  are  sure 
you  are  going  to  take  the  jump,  you  put  your  whole  heart 
in  it,  and  the  horse  responds.  Often  a  man  approaches  his 
jump,  uncertainty  written  plainly  on  his  face.  His  horse 
senses  it,  and  by  "  refusing  "  avoids  disappointing  him. 

48.  Keep  your  jumps  low  enough  and  your  horse 
quiet  enough  so  man  and  horse  enjoy  the  eiercise  and  gain 
perfect  confidence  and  control.  While  each  man  will 
learn  jumping  through  experience,  and  most  instruction 
will  be  given  by  correcting  faults  exhibited  at  the  hurdle, 
you  may  well  start  the  recruit  at  the  low  jumps  with  the 
following  rules : 

Take  the  reins  in  both  hands,  hold  the  hands  low,  and 
never  let  them  fly  up  during  the  jump. 

Clasp  the  horse  with  the  calves  of  the  leg  in  rear  of 
the  cincha,  and  never  let  the  feet  swing  to  the  front, 
weight  in  the  stirrup,  during  the  jump  or  upon  landing. 

Control  the  horse  with  the  legs  and  reins  until  assured 


414  HORSEMANSHIP 

he  is  going  to  jump,  then  give  him  free  rein  so  as  not  to 
touch  his  mouth  again,  until  after  he  has  landed. 

Sit  down  deep  into  the  saddle  with  the  loins  perfectly 
supple,  and  keep  a  close  seat  throughout  the  whole  exer- 
cise. As  soon  as  familiarity  allows  it,  learn  to  sway 
slightly  forward  to  assist  the  horse  in  the  takeoff,  and 
slightly  backward  to  relieve  him  in  landing.  Let  the  use 
of  the  whip  at  the  jump  be  a  last  resort  all  but  never  used. 

49.  Across  Country  Work. — As  early  as  practical 
in  training,  after  seat  and  hands  have  been  acquired,  the 
beginner's  instruction  should  be  begun  in  negotiating  va- 
ried ground,  to  teach  him  how  to  care  for  himself  and  his 
horse  in  the  various  conditions  he  will  meet  in  campaign. 
This  instruction  should  be  progressive,  negotiating  more 
and  more  difficult  obstacles,  until  he  can  be  trusted  to  work 
alone. 

The  following  are  fundamental  principles  to  be  ob- 
served : 

1.  The  gait  must  be  so  regulated  as  to  husband  a 
horse's  strength ;  and  a  rapid  gait  never  taken  up  until 
the  horse  has  walked  and  warmed  up  gradually. 

2.  The  gaits  should  be  varied  to  suit  the  grades  and 
ground  surface,  but  each  gait  should  be  held  to  the  normal 
speed  prescribed.  Fast  work  up  hill  demands  effort  and 
is  exhausting,  down  hill  it  is  liable  to  cause  injury,  espe- 
cially on  hard_  surfaces.  The  length  of  each  period  for 
the  faster  gaits  may  be  increased  progressively,  watching 
the  horse  to  avoid  taxing  his  powers. 

3.  Seek  the  best  footing  for  the  horse,  the  soft  ground 
beside  metaled  roads,  etc.  A  smooth,  hard  surface  is  bet- 
ter, however,  than  a  soft  one  that  is  very  uneven  or  heavy. 

4.  In  particularly  difficult  conditions,  the  rider  may 
well  dismount  and  lead.  The  horse  should  be  trained  to 
this,  and  given  as  much  freedom  in  it  as  possible,  as  he  will 
know  better  how  to  negotiate  the  difficulties.  Even  when 
the  rider  remains  mounted,  he  should  always  give  the  horse 
his  head  in  negotiating  difficult  ground. 

5.  In  ascending  steep  slopes,  give  free  rein,  carrying 


ANALYSIS  OF  GAITS  415 

your  weight  forward  and  supporting  it  by  grasping  a  lock 
of  the  mane  half  way  up  the  horse's  neck.  Go  quietly  and 
directly  up  short  hills.  If  it  be  a  long  steep  slope,  and  the 
footing  be  secure  enough,  go  up  diagonally.  Down  hill, 
go  straight ;  your  weight  well  back,  holding  by  clasping 
your  thighs. 

6.  The  question  of  whether  to  jump  an  obstacle  or  go 
round  it  will  be  one  for  you  to  determine.  With  packed 
saddle  the  horse  will  often  climb  through  a  ditch  with  less 
exertion  than  jump  it.  A  soft  bottom  may  make  jumping 
necessary. 

7.  At  the  close  of  the  work  always  walk  to  the  stable, 
far  enough  to  ensure  his  arrival  with  a  dry  skin  and  normal 
respiration. 

8.  Encourage  the  horse  to  keep  a  fast  flat-footed  walk, 
giving  him  free  use  of  his  head,  by  extending  and  swinging 
which  he  assists  himself  forward.  A  free-for-all  walking 
race  to  the  stable  after  dismissing  each  days'  drill  is  a  good 
method  for  this  training. 

50.  Gaits. — Every  horseman  should  be  interested 
in  having  a  knowledge  of  the  horse's  gaits,  at  least  how 
many  miles  an  hour  he  covers  at  the  various  prescribed 
gaits.  In  the  analysis  of  gaits,  be  should  be  able  to  dis- 
tinguish at  a  glance  whether  a  horse  is  trotting,  single- 
footing  or  pacing;  and  in  the  gallop,  on  which  foot  the 
horse  is  leading,  and  whether  leading  properly  or  not. 
Having  first  learned  the  analyses  of  the  various  gaits,  that 
is,  in  what  succession  the  feet  strike  the  ground,  to  learn 
to  distinguish  these  gaits  quickly,  the  best  method  is  to 
keep  the  eye  fixed  on  some  one  foot,  for  example  the  left 
fore  foot,  and  then  observe  what  foot,  if  any,  strikes  the 
ground  simultaneously  with  it,  as  the  right  hind  foot  would 
do  in  the  trot. 

The  walk  is  a  gait  of  four  distinct  beats,  each  foot 
planted  in  regular  order  of  succession,  e.  g.,  right- fore,  left 
hind,  left  fore,  right  hind,  and  so  on.  For  much  of  the 
time  three  feet  are  firmly  planted  on  the  ground,  an  admir- 
able condition  for  powerful  draft.     In  military  service, 


416  HORSEMANSHIP 

its  rate  is  four  miles  an  hour,  and  training  may  increase 
this  ;  in  civiHan  work,  it  is  much  slower. 

The  trot  has  two  distinct  beats ;  the  horse  springs 
from  one  diagonally  disposed  pair,  left  fore  and  right 
hind,  to  the  other.  The  diagonal  lines  connecting  the 
points  of  support,  left  fore  to  right  hind,  and  right  fore  to 
left  hind  pass  practically  under  his  centre  of  gravity, 
which  makes  this  a  powerful,  steady,  gait  for  the  horse 
bearing  a  burden.  Between  the  beats,  all  feet  are  in  the 
air.  For  military  maneuvering  the  rate  is  eight  miles  an 
hour;  for  marching,  a  shade  slower;  for  training  be- 
ginners, as  slow  as  six  miles  is  advisable. 

The  pace,  "  side  wheel,"  in  some  localities  called 
"rack,"  is  not  a  military  gait,  nor  suited  to  bearing  loads. 
It  has  two  beats  like  the  trot,  the  horse  springing  from  one 
parallel  pair,  left  fore  and  left  hind,  to  the  other.  This 
gives  a  sideways  lift  to  the  mass,  and  motion  to  the  rider; 
and,  aimed  at  destroying  equilibrium,  requires  quick  mus- 
cular response  to  restore  it.     Hence  the  speed  of  the  gait. 

The  single  foot,  also  a  non-military  gait,  has  four 
distinct  beats,  in  continuing  unifonnity  of  succession  like 
the  ticking  of  a  clock.  It  is  the  most  comfortable  gait  for 
the  rider,  there  being  no  motion  to  the  saddle,  either 
vertical  or  lateral;  but  it  is  hard  on  the  horse  being  an 
artificial  gait  for  most  American  horses.  It  has  been 
analysed  as  trotting  in  front,  combined  with  a  fast  walk 
behind,  and  is  characterized  by  a  jerky  side  motion  to  the 
dock. 

The  canter  has  three  beats.  Cantering  to  the  right, 
the  succession  would  be,  left  hind  to  the  diagonal,  left  fore 
and  right  hind,  to  the  right  fore — from  which  the  horse 
rises  in  the  next  spring.  This  is  a  highly  collected  gait, 
in  military  service  held  at  eight  miles  an  hour,  and  used 
for  instruction  and  riding  hall  work ;  it  may  be  held  down 
to  any  degree  of  progression  in  highly  trained  horses — 
"  The  Kentucky  gentleman  canters  for  an  afternoon  in 
the  shade  of  his  own  apple  tree." 

The  gallop  has  four  beats,  regularly  spaced,  and 


SWIMMING  417 

separated  by  a  slight  pause  while  the  horse  is  in  the  air. 
Galloping  to  the  right,  the  regular  order  of  succession  is 
left  hind,  right  hind,  left  fore,  right  fore.  This  is  gal- 
loping "  true,"  with  the  proper  lead.  He  is  galloping 
"false  "  when  leading  with  the  wrong  feet,  behind  and 
in  front.  He  is  "  disunited  "  when  leading  differently 
behind  and  in  front,  e.  g.,  leading  left  behind  and  right  in 
front.  In  military  service  the  maneuvering  gallop  is  at 
twelve  miles  an  hour,  the  extended  gallop  at  sixteen. 

The  run  is  but  the  gallop  extended  to  high  speed.  As 
the  speed  increases  the  foot  prints  come  more  and  more 
nearly  into  one  straight  line  in  the  path  of  the  horse ;  for 
each  will  need  to  be  planted  directly  in  the  vertical  plane 
through  his  centre  of  gravity,  to  aid  in  maintaining 
equilibrium.  This  suggests  the  advantage  to  the  horse 
of  a  rider  who  does  not  shift  his  own  weight  about  in  the 
saddle,  constantly  shifting  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
combined  mass  of  horse  and  rider. 

51.  Swimming. — Every  opportunity  should  be 
taken  to  train  man  and  horse  in  swimming.  This  can 
be  done  most  easily  in  crossing  a  stream,  or  pond,  where 
the  opposite  bank  is  near  and  plainly  visible,  so  that  it  will 
seem  reasonable  to  the  horse  to  swim  away  from  the  shore 
where  you  have  entered  the  water.  In  the  beginning  it 
will  be  very  helpful  if  he  can  see  other  horses  on  the  op- 
posite bank  where  he  is  to  land.  Be  careful  that  your 
bridle  reins  resting  on  the  horse's  neck,  are  always  knotted 
long  enough  to  allow  the  horse  to  extend  his  nose  well  to 
the  front  in  swimming,  and  yet  so  short  as  to  prevent  a 
loop  hanging  low  enough  for  him  to  catch  his  forefoot  in. 
For  your  own  safety,  avoid  getting  into  position  where 
your  own  horse  or  another  may  be  tempted  to  step  on  you, 
to  help  himself  out  of  the  water.  Until  he  is  accustomed 
to  swimming  the  horse  is  very  nervous  in  this  exercise, 
and  willing  to  climb  up  on  anything  that  he  thinks  may 
help  him  out. 

The  rider  urges  the  horse  forward  quietly  but  firmly, 
until  off  his  feet  in  deep  water ;  as  soon  as  he  is  swimming 


418  HORSEMANSHIP 

quietly  and  headed  in  the  right  direction,  drop  the  reins, 
and  relieve  him  of  your  weight  by  swimming  beside  him 
on  the  down  stream  side,  your  up  stream  hand  hold  of  the 
saddle  or  mane ;  or,  even  easier  for  the  horse,  drop  back 
and,  catching  his  tail,  let  him  tow  you.  In  the  former 
case  you  may  control  his  direction  by  reaching  the  reins, 
or  splashing  water  against  the  side  of  his  head;  in  the 
latter  you  may  have  no  control,  and  if  other  horses  are 
swimming  near,  may  be  towed  in  front  of  another  horse, 
who  will  try  to  use  you  as  a  stepping  stone. 

When  the  horse  touches  bottom  at  the  landing,  he  will 
probably  go  ashore  with  ardent  plunges,  and  you  will  have 
to  be  quick  to  regain  your  seat.  If  intending  to  try  the 
towing  process,  unbuckle  one  end  of  the  rein,  and  as 
you  drop  back  let  its  whole  length  float  to  the  rear,  where 
you  may  grasp  its  end,  and  regain  control  of  the  horse 
as  he  lands. 

Where  the  horse  swims  low  in  front,  and  you  are  to 
ride  him,  as  when  armed  and  carrying  the  rifle  out  of  the 
water  on  your  shoulder,  slip  well  back,  and  sit  just  in 
front  of  the  haunches,  where  the  hip  bones  against  your 
thighs  will  hold  you  in  place,  besides  giving  you  interest- 
ing sensations  from  the  powerful  thrusts  of  his  legs. 

Both  men  and  horses  may  easily  come  to  enjoy  this 
exercise,  and  with  the  horse  stripped  to  nothing  but  the 
watering  bridle,  and  the  rider  without  even  that,  it  becomes 
a  healthful,  spirit-forming  addition  to  the  day's  work, 
especially  in  hot  weather. 

52.  Training  Horses. — You  have  now  learned 
everything  necessary  for  the  trooper  on  a  trained  horse. 
If  you  aspire  to  the  pleasure  of  training  a  horse,  study  the 
following  until  you  know  it,  and  have  caught  its  spirit.  It 
is  largely  a  matter  of  patience,  getting  acquainted,  mutual 
understanding — in  fact  of  horse  sense. 

It  is  impracticable  to  give  here  more  than  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  horse  training.  The  soldier  will 
then  be  able  intelligently  to  do  this  work  under  his  ofificer 
■ — and  the  civilian,  who  has  time  to  train  horses,  will  also 


TRAINING  HORSES  419 

have  time  to  study  the  subject  in  Phillis,  or  Anderson,  or 
some  other  of  those  excellent  masters. 

53.  First  remember  that  the  horse  is  disciplined 
like  a  man  more  by  a  system  of  rewards  than  of  punish- 
ments. During  his  training  take  frequent  occasion  to  re- 
ward him  by  patting,  immediately  upon  his  giving 
proper  response  to  your  signal.  In  fact  it  is  in  this  way 
only  that  he  may  learn  what  response  to  make  to  a  signal. 
For  example,  you  carry  back  your  right  leg  and  give  the 
pressure  calling  for  his  stepping  to  the  left  with  his 
haunches.  He  does  not  yet  know  what  you  want.  He 
may  do  anything,  even  kick  at  your  foot  which  is  annoying 
him.  You  continue  the  annoyance,  ultimately  he  steps 
away  from  it.  You  instantly  show  him  that  was  right  by 
patting  him.  Then  try  it  again,  and  again  reward  him 
only  when  he  does  right.  Very  soon  he  associates  pressure 
with  your  right  foot  and  stepping  oflf  to  the  left  with  his 
hind  feet.  You  can  see  now  that  the  man  who  pats  his 
horse  to  quiet  him  when  unruly  is  destroying  his  one  means 
of  teaching  him  properly. 

54.  We  consider  the  horse  an  animal  of  a  single  idea 
and  that  he  has  no  reasoning  faculties  beyond  the  limits 
of  his  experience,  and  consequently  we  reason  with  him 
by  acts  alone,  his  natural  movement  being  away  from 
that  which  hurts  him  or  excites  his  fear.  Early  impres- 
sions are  seldom  forgotten,  and  it  is  important  that  each 
move  be  correctly  begun.  In  familiarizing  him  with 
objects  that  excite  his  fear,  the  horse  should  be  allowed 
to  smell  or  touch  them  with  his  nostrils,  for  in  a  certain 
sense  they  are  to  him  what  the  fingers  are  to  man. 

Invariable  rules  cannot  be  laid  down  for  the  proper 
training  of  all  horses,  as  it  will  be  found  that  each  horse 
requires  special  treatment. 

Horses  are  trained  by  the  best  horsemen,  and  the  men 
employed  in  this  are  selected  for  their  natural  fondness 
for  animals,  as  well  as  for  their  patience,  coolness,  and 
intelligence. 

The  horse  is  made  gentle  and  obedient,  and  his  powers 


420  HORSEMANSHIP 

and  qualities  are  best  developed  by  patience,  kindness,  en- 
couragement, and  fearlessness ;  punishment  is  resorted 
to  only  when  necessary,  and  then  only  administered  imme- 
diately after  the  commission  of  the  offense,  that  he  may 
know  why  he  is  punished.  No  punishment  should  ever  be 
administered  to  the  horse  in  anger.  Under  harsh  treat- 
ment he  will  become  timid,  then  sullen,  and  at  length 
violent  and  unmanageable. 

Restlessness  and  impatience  frequently  arise  from  ex- 
uberance of  spirits  or  playfulness,  which  must  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  that  which  arises  from  viciousness 
or  timidity.  When  restless,  the  horse  should  be  handled 
quietly  until  he  becomes  calm ;  when  submissive  after 
punishment,  he  should  be  treated  kindly. 

As  one  horse  is  apt  to  be  governed  by  the  actions  of 
another,  trained  horses  that  are  indifferent  to  such  things 
should  be  associated  with  the  new  ones  when  accustoming 
them  to  the  sights  and  sounds  of  unaccustomed  service. 

The  first  object  to  be  attained  in  training  the  horse 
is  to  gain  his  confidence  and  render  him  gentle  and  tract- 
able. For  this  purpose,  all  proj)er  means  must  be  em- 
ployed, such  as  feeding,  handling,  patting  him,  taking  up 
his  feet,  etc.,  and  the  practice  of  the  longe. 

When  the  horse  will  quietly  allow  his  feet  to  be 
handled  and  lifted,  the  trooper  should  practice  gently 
tapping  them  to  accustom  him  to  the  action  of  shoeing. 

The  trooper  must  endeavor  to  discover  the  horse's 
natural  inclinations  and  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  his 
abilities,  that  he  may  know  how  to  take  advantage  of  these 
qualities. 

Every  action  of  the  trooper  should  tend  to  induce  full 
confidence  that  no  harm  is  intended  and  nothing  but  kind 
treatment  is  to  be  expected. 

The  new  horse  should  have  at  least  two  hours  work  in 
the  open  air  each  day. 

His  first  lessons  will  be  in  going  ahead,  in  handling  his 
feet  and  legs  properly,  in.  acquiring  a  control  of  his  forces 


CARE  OF  THE  HORSE  421 

under  direction.  Long  quiet  trips  at  a  walk  and  trot  do 
much  to  steady  and  control  him. 

By  stages  he  will  be  brought  to  a  knowledge  of  the  bit, 
and  reins,  and  of  the  saddle,  and  gain  the  ability  to  balance 
his  forces  with  the  weight  of  a  rider  on  his  back. 

Great  stress  is  laid  on  using  your  voice  to  quiet,  to 
reassure,  and  to  control  your  horse  during  training.  So 
few  men  will  do  it,  and  yet  it  is  particularly  helpful. 

55.  As  the  horse  is  an  animal  of  one  idea,  if  he  gets  the 
idea  of  resistance  along  any  one  line,  you  but  make  him 
more  stubborn  by  opposing  that  idea  directly.  Better  to 
quit  that  absolutely,  and  take  up  some  entirely  different 
thing,  however  simple,  that  you  are  sure  he  will  do.  Thus 
direct  his  mind  from  disobedience,  and  by  easy  stages  of 
controlled  action  bring  him  up  to  the  disputed  point  again. 

56.  Do  not  go  from  one  thing  to  another  so  rapidly 
as  to  disgust  him,  nor  repeat  the  same  one  too  frequently. 
And  the  greatest  fault  and  most  common  is  to  "  dub 
around  "  giving  half-hearted  indifferent  signals  and  not 
demanding  perfect  obedience. 

First  decide  exactly  what  you  intend  the  horse  to  do, 
be  sure  it  is  reasonable,  then  give  the  proper  signals  un- 
mistakably ;  and  then  give  your  entire  attention  to  seeing 
that  they  are  accurately  obeyed.  You  see  it  is  but  a  repe- 
tition of  training  a  recruit  in  obedience  of  orders, — ^the 
important  part  lies  with  the  man  who  gives  the  orders. 

Care  of  the  Horse 

57.  This  must  be  your  constant  personal  interest. 
If  your  horse  fails  you,  you  are  likely  to  have  to  walk. 
Fortunately  he  is  a  sturdy  animal  of  regular  dependable 
habits,  capable  of  great  hardship  when  reasonably  treated. 
In  campaigns  he  is  our  uncomplaining  better  half,  and  as 
we  must  require  tremendous  exertion  from  him  in 
emergencies,  we  must  give  him  every  attention  to  bring 
him  to  the  issue  prepared  to  meet  it. 

You  may  not  appreciate  the  importance  of  thorough 
grooming,  his  daily  bath,  until  you  have  seen  a  neglected 


422  HORSEMANSHIP 

horse  blossom  as  a  result  of  receiving  it.  You  will  be 
jealous  of  your  mount  getting  good  drinking  water,  and 
his  fair  share  of  the  feed.  You  will  think  first  of  his 
comfort  on  the  halts  and  when  you  make  camp. 

58.  Sickness  and  Injuries. — In  your  experience 
these  troubles  will  come  from  some  violation  of  the 
simple  rules  given  in  this  chapter,  for  feeding,  watering, 
adjusting  equipment,  and  handling  the  horse  in  his  work. 
Vou  must  learn  these  rules  atid  constantly  apply  them. 
Then  you  won't  have  to  know  how  to  treat  disease  and 
injury.  It  is  impracticable  to  expect  you  to  remember 
their  symptoms  and  treatments  when  experience  so  rarely 
gives  you  practice  in  them ;  so  why  bother  to  learn  them. 
Fortunately  these  troubles  are  infrequent  in  peace  ser- 
vice. If  sickness  does  come  apply  the  general  rule  to  take 
off  the  horse's  equipment,  give  him  rest,  keep  him  warm, 
and  meantime  send  post  haste  for  the  veterinary,  or  at 
least  the  farrier,  who  will  know  what  else  to  do.  In 
actual  service  many  a  military  surgeon  has  helped  out  with 
advice,  where  the  veterinary  was  not  available. 

59.  Shoeing. — The  matter  of  proper  shoeing  is  of 
vital  importance,  and  generally  not  well  understood  by 
civilian  horse  shoers.  Every  horseman  should  know, 
and  see  that  his  horse  has  the  benefit  of  the  following 
principles : 

In  preparing  the  foot  for  the  shoe  it  should  be  made 
to  approximate  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  state  of  nature. 
The  knife  must  never  be  used  on  the  bars  or  the  frog. 
"  Opening  the  heels  "  is  pernicious,  and  results  in  con- 
tracted heels.  The  dry  horn  of  the  outer  surface  of  the 
walls,  sole  and  frog  is  essential  to  preserving  the  moisture 
and  elasticity  of  the  hoof.  Hence  the  wall  must  never  be 
rasped  down  to  fit  the  shoe.  A  hot  shoe  must  never  be 
applied  to  the  foot.  Ragged  pieces  of  the  frog  may  be 
carefully  removed  with  the  nippers. 

The  great  consideration  is  that  a  smooth  flat  surface 
of  the  walls  of  the  hoof  come  in  full  contact  with  a 
smooth  flat  surface  of  the  shoe;  that  the  sole  does  not 


FEEDING  AND  WATERING  423 

touch  the  shoe;  and  that  the  shoe  be  so  adjusted  and 
fastened  as  to  allow  the  foot  to  expand  from  the  quarter 
back  to  the  heel  as  the  horse's  weight  comes  upon  it  in  the 
trot,  the  frog  taking  up  much  of  the  shock  by  contact 
with  the  ground. 

Shoes  should  be  removed  about  once  a  month ;  and  the 
lightest  shoe  that  will  wear  this  long  is  the  best.  The 
length  of  the  shoe  should  be  such  as  to  come  even  with  the 
bulb  of  the  frog. 

60.  In  grooming  the  comb  is  used  mostly  to  clean 
the  brush — after  every  few  strokes.  It  is  never  applied 
to  the  mane  or  tail,  and  to  the  horse  only  when  necessary 
to  loosen  caked  mud,  matted  hair,  etc. 

The  brush  is  used  with  a  straight  arm  stroke  in  the 
direction  of  the  hair,  the  man  standing  well  away  from 
the  horse  and  putting  his  weight  into  it — which  accounts 
for  the  uniform  arm  and  shoulder  development  notice- 
able in  regular  cavalrymen,  and  is  necessary  to  make  the 
bristles  of  the  brush  actually  take  hold  of  the  skin  and 
clean  it. 

Stables  should  immediately  follow  the  day's  mounted 
work,  when  the  horse's  skin  may  be  cleaned  most  thor- 
oughly. This  is  followed  by  necessary  care  of  the  sadd- 
lery. Horses  are  merely  brushed  off  for  appearance's 
sake  in  the  morning  before  drill.  In  order  that  it  may 
not  be  overlooked,  the  first  move  in  grooming  is  to  ex- 
amine and  clean  the  horse's  feet ;  the  last  is  to  wipe  out 
with  a  suitable  cloth  the  horse's  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  and 
dock. 

61.  Feeding. — Horses  should  be  fed  three  times  a 
day,  one-third  of  the  grain  each  time;  in  garrison,  one- 
third  the  hay  at  noon,  the  rest  at  night ;  on  the  march,  all 
the  hay  at  night.  Hay  and  grain  should  be  free  from  dust, 
and  this  may  be  accomplished  by  winnowing  in  a  wind. 
Where  grazing  is  resorted  to,  the  early  morning  hours  are 
most  favorable.  When  the  horse  is  very  hungry  take  the 
edge  off  his  appetite  with  hay  or  grazing,  so  he  will  not 
bolt  the  grain  when  he  gets  it.    In  feeding  in  camp  or  on 


424  HORSEMANSHIP 

the  march,  instead  of  the  troop  marching  to  the  forage 
with  empty  nose  bags  and  having  them  filled  for  each  in 
turn  as  prescribed,  a  much  better  method,  which  obviates 
the  hardship  of  this  long  delay  for  the  men,  is  for  the 
stable  crew  to  have  the  nose  bags  filled  prior  to  each  time 
for  feeding.  The  troop  is  then  marched  up  and  each  man 
takes  his  nose  bag  and  then  takes  his  place  opposite  his 
horse,  and  when  all  are  ready  they  feed  simultaneously  at 
the  command  of  the  first  sergeant.  This  latter  is  impor- 
tant to  avoid  the  fighting  among  the  horses  on  the  line 
which  results  from  one  horse  being  fed  while  the  one 
adjoining  him  is  not. 

62.  Watering. — Horses  may  best  have  free  access 
to  water.  Where  this  is  impracticable  they  should  be 
watered  regularly,  before  feeding  or  at  least  two  hours 
thereafter,  on  the  march,  whenever  opportunity  offers. 

The  manner  in  which  watering  is  conducted  is  a  good 
test  of  cavalry  discipline.  It  should  be  supervised  by  an 
officer,  done  quietly,  going  and  returning  at  a  walk.  In 
watering,  to  give  the  slower  drinking  horses  full  oppor- 
tunity to  drink  all  they  want,  it  is  necessary  that  all  the 
horses  at  the  drinking  place  should  be  kept  there  quietly 
until  the  slowest  horse  has  satisfied  himself,  when  all  are 
taken  away  by  direction  of  the  man  in  charge.  The  horse 
is  such  a  gregarious  fool  that  if  a  neighboring  horse  leaves 
the  water  he  will  try  to  leave  with  him,  going  away  still 
thirsty  if  nfecessary,  for  fear  he  will  miss  something. 

When  watering  a  few  at  a  time,  the  rest  of  the  troop 
should  be  halted  and  held  well  away  from  the  watering 
place;  and  those  that  have  finished  drinking  taken  well 
away  to  form  the  troop  again.  Both  these  precautions 
tend  to  keep  the  horses  quiet. 

63.  Additional  Rules. — At  every  halt  on  the  road, 
or  if  your  horse  shows  unexpected  lameness,  examine  his 
feet  to  see  if  he  has  picked  up  a  stone  between  the  shoe  and 
frog  or  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  Upon  the  completion  of  the 
march,  or  any  hard  trip,  let  normal  circulation  of  the  back 
under  the  saddle  be  restored  gradually  by  leaving  the 


POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  425 

saddle  on  for  a  time,  with  slightly  loosened  cincha ;  and 
letting  the  back  cool  gradually.  After  the  back  is  cooled 
out,  hand  rubbing  with  cool  salt  water  will  be  helpfuU  If 
puffs  appear,  keep  them  wet  with  salt  water,  and  so  ar- 
range the  pack  next  day  as  to  relieve  them  from  pressure. 
This  can  generally  be  done  by  folding  back  the  saddle 
blanket  into  a  double  thickness  nearby,  thus  relieving  the 
pressure  at  the  affected  point. 

Exercise  at  least  two  hours  daily  is  essential  to  keep- 
ing a  horse  conditioned.  This  may  be  done  by  leading 
where  enough  riders  are  not  available,  but  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  horse  well  balanced  by  leading  as  much 
on  the  near  side  as  on  the  off.  Leading  is  better  than  turn- 
ing loose,  as  it  teaches  the  horse  to  look  to  man  for  the 
fun  of  exercising,  rather  than  to  getting  it  free  from 
control. 

In  saddling  up  be  particularly  careful  that  your  blanket 
is  clean,  and  that  every  fold  is  free  from  creases.  If 
later  your  saddle  slips,  remove  it  entirely,  and  carefully 
readjust  the  blanket  before  cinching.  Two  men  should 
work  together  in  doing  this. 

Points  of  the  Horse 

64.  An  intelligent  horseman  naturally  ,takes  an  in- 
terest in  the  points  of  a  horse.  And  he  cannot  even  dis- 
cuss a  horse  without  knowing  at  least  the  names  of  the 
"  points."  These  should  be  not  only  learned  by  the  men, 
but  the  squad  leader  should  assemble  his  men  about  a 
living  horse  and  discuss  its  points  with  them. 

65.  An  interesting  chapter  could  be  devoted  to  a 
discussion  of  the  good  and  bad  points  of  a  cavalry  horse, 
but^t  is  believed  that  such  discussion  would  exceed  the 
scope  of  this  chapter.  Enough  to  state  that  the  first  es- 
sential of  a  horse  for  service  is  stamina  and  the  second 
good  temper  which  will  generally  be  accompanied  by  good 
digestion  and  boldness;  and  to  quote  the  following  dis- 
cussion on  "  conformation  and  points  "  from  "  The  Army 
Horse  in  Accident  and  Disease." 


426  HORSEMANSHIP 

"  The  forehead  should  be  broad  and  not  bulging ;  the 
eyes  full,  clear,  and  prominent,  with  a  mild  expression, 
and  not  showing  any  of  the  white ;  the  muzzle  not  too 
large,  as  a  coarse,  large  muzzle  indicates  ill  breeding ;  the 
nostrils  large  and  open ;  the  face  straight ;  and  the  lower 
jaw  with  ample  width  between  the  two  sides,  for  the  de- 
velopment and  play  of  the  larynx  (Adam's  apple)  and 
windpipe,  and,  in  addition,  to  allow  the  head  to  be  nicely 
bent  on  the  neck. 

"  The  ears  should  be  of  a  medium  size,  set  well  on  the 
head  and  held  erect. 

"  The  parotid  and  submaxillary  regions  should  be  free 
from  large  glands  and  without  any  loose  skin  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  throat. 

"  The  neck  should  be  of  moderate  length,  clean  and  not 
too  narrow  at  a  point  just  in  the  rear  of  the  throat ;  a  short, 
thick  neck  does  not  allow  of  free  movement  from  side  to 
side ;  and  a  long,  slim  neck  is  apt  to  be  too  pliable.  A  neck 
with  concave  upper  border,  known  as  '  ewe  neck,'  is  un- 
sightly. The  jugular  channel  or  furrow  should  be  free 
from  enlargements.  The  point  of  the  shoulder  should  be 
well  developed.  The  point  of  the  elbow  should  not  be 
turned  in,  as  the  horse  in  that  case  is  apt  to  turn  his  toes 
out ;  the  opposite  conformation  results  in  the  condition 
called  '  pigeontoed.' 

"  The  forearm  should  be  long  and  muscular ;  the  knee 
broad,  and  when  looked  at  from  the  front,  much  wider 
than  the  limb  above  and  below,  but  tapering  off  backward 
to  a  comparatively  thin  edge.  A  bending  of  the  knee  back- 
ward is  called  a  '  calf  knee,'  and  is  very  objectionable. 
The  opposite  condition  is  known  as  '  knee  sprung.' 

"  The  cannon  should  be  of  uniform  size ;  if  smaller  just 
below  the  knee  than  elsewhere  (a  condition  called  'tied 
in '),  weakness  is  to  be  expected. 

"  The  fetlock  joint  should  be  of  good  size  and  clean ; 
the  pasterns  of  moderate  length,  and  forming  an  angle  of 
between  45  and  50  degrees  with  the  ground  or  floor. 

"  The  foot  should  be  of  moderate  size ;  a  flat  foot  or 
one  too  narrow  at  the  heels  is  objectionable. 


POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  427 

**  The  relative  proportions  of  the  shoulders  and  the 
exact  shape  desirable  vary  considerably  in  cavalry  and 
artillery  horses.  When  speed  and  activity  are  essential,  as 
in  the  cavalry  horse,  the  shoulder  should  be  oblique  (slop- 
ing), as  this  shape  gives  elasticity  to  the  gait  of  the  horse. 
For  the  artillery  horse,  working  in  harness,  a  more  up- 
right shoulder  bears  the  pressure  of  the  collar  more  evenly, 
and  when  the  collar  is  at  right  angles  to  the  traces  the 
horse  exerts  his  strength  to  the  greatest  advantage.  The 
front  line  of  the  shoulder  must  be  clearly  marked. 

"  The  withers  should  not  be  thin  and  high,  as  this 
conformation  will  allow  the  saddle  to  slip  too  far  forward 
and  the  pommel  to  rest  upon  the  withers.  The  bars  of 
the  saddle  will  be  forced  against  the  shoulder  blades,  caus- 
ing irritation  and  inflammation,  and  preventing  free  mo- 
tion of  the  shoulders ;  the  constraint  causes  stumbling. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  withers  should  not  be  low  or  thick, 
as  the  saddle  is  then  apt  to  pinch  them. 

"  The  breast  and  chest  should  be  of  moderate  width  and 
have  considerable  depth  ;  the  narrow  chest  indicates  weak- 
ness, and  the  wide,  heavy  chest  is  suitable  for  heavy- 
draft  horses  only. 

"  The  capacity  of  the  lungs  is  marked  by  the  size  of  the 
chest  at  the  girth,  but  the  stamina  will  depend  upon  the 
length  of  the  back  ribs.  The  barrel  should  not  be  broad 
back  of  the  cinch,  as  it  would  cause  the  cinch  to  slip  for- 
ward and  chafe  the  body  just  back  of  the  point  of  the 
elbow.  The  opposite  conformation  would  allow  the  sad- 
dle and  cinch  to  slip  backward.  The  back  should  be  short, 
with  muscles  well  developed,  and  the  upper  lines  of  the 
back  bending  down  a  little  behind  the  withers  and  then 
swelling  out  very  gently  to  the  junction  of  the  loins, 
which  can  hardly  be  too  broad  and  muscular. 

"  The  last  rib  should  be  placed  close  to  the  point  of  the 
hip,  as  this  is  an  indication  of  strength,  and  the  horse  is 
more  easily  kept  in  good  condition  than  one  having  the 
opposite  conformation. 

"  A  slightly  arched  loin  is  essential  to  the  power  of 
carrying  weight :  the  concave  or  *  sway-back '  is  there- 


428  HORSEMANSHIP 

fore  a  sign  of  weakness ;  the  much  arched  or  '  roach  back ' 
is  almost  sure  to  give  uneasy  action  from  its  want  of 
elasticity. 

"  The  hips  should  be  broad,  smooth,  and  muscular. 

"  The  croup  should  be  well  rounded,  should  slope 
slightly  downward  and  be  of  moderate  length;  both  the 
straight,  horizontal  croup  and  the  drooping  croup  are  un- 
sightly ;  when  the  croup  droops  and  also  becomes  narrow 
below  the  tail,  the  conformation  is  known  as  '  goose  rump ' 
and  is  a  sign  of  weakness. 

"  The  dock  should  be  large  and  muscular,  the  tail  car- 
ried firmly  and  well  away  from  the  quarters. 

"  The  quarter  (thigh  and  buttock)  and  gaskin  should 
be  broad.  The  muscles  of  the  two  quarters  should  come 
dose  together,  leaving  no  hollow  below  the  anus ;  the 
widely  separated  conformation  is  an  indication  of  a 
want  of  constitution. 

"  The  hock  should  be  of  good  size,  but  clean  and  flat, 
and  with  a  good  clean  point  standing  clear  of  the  joint. 
The  two  hocks  should  stand  well  apart,  but  not  enough 
to  give  the  horse  the  appearance  of  being  *  bow-legged.' 

*  Cow-hocked,'  so  called,  is  when  the  hocks  stand  close 
together  and  the  hind  feet  wide  apart,  with  the  toes  turned 
out. 

"If  the  hocks  stand  in,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  stifles 
stand  out,  and  the  reverse.  *  Straight  hock  '  and  '  crooked 
hock '  are  terms  used  to  express  the  shape  of  the  hind  leg 
as  seen  from  the  side;  both  shapes  are  objectionable. 

*  Sickle  hock '  describes  the  curv'e  which  results  from  a 
crooked  hock,  a  short  cannon,  and  a  sloping  pastern. 

"The  cannon  should  be  short,  not  tied  in  below  the  hock, 
and  the  line  from  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  back  part 
of  the  fetlock  should  be  straight. 

"  The  fetlock  when  bent  forward  is  an  indication  of 
weakness  known  as  *  cocked  ankle.*  The  hind  fetlocks, 
pasterns,  and  feet  should  correspond  to  those  of  the  fore 
extremity,  but  the  pasterns  are  usually  more  upright'' 

The  End 


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